DANCE ARTICLES
THE PERFORMING ATTITUDE

Published in Dance Teacher Now (1987-91)

SELF-CONFIDENCE

Almost every dancer has at some time in his or her career experienced the feeling of complete self-confidence. Honed, strong, and relaxed, you know you are dancing well. It is a feeling of invincibility that usually results in a great performance.

Self-confidence may be the single most important ingredient for successful performing. It enables you to extend yourself, to take risks, and reach inside yourself. It can be the difference between performing well and poorly. A distinguishing characteristic of all great dancers is that they don’t think they will dance well, they know it. Yet for most people confidence is very fragile; it is easily lost and tremendously difficult to rebuild.

Though self-confidence is an oft-used term, few people really understand what it is. Self-confidence reflects how you feel about yourself and your abilities. It determines how much effort you expend, your goals, and your expectations of success. Since people rarely exceed their expectations, the dancers’ level of self-confidence can determine how well they perform.

Dancers must regularly monitor their confidence level and be sensitive to changes. Instructors and choreographers should also be alert to this. A loss of confidence usually follows a period of unexpectedly poor dancing and results in depression, irritability and is reflected in severe self-criticism such as “I’ll probably fall” or “I just can’t dance.” These negative evaluations are disruptive both mentally and physically, hurting confidence more and causing tension that inhibits natural ability. A vicious cycle of low self-confidence results in which a poor performance causes lower confidence and on and on in a downward spiral.

There are effective means of building and maintaining self-confidence. Good training, the mastery of technique and the general feeling of competency that results will increase your confidence. The mastery of technique can then be carried over onto the artistry of the stage.

The teacher’s role in helping dancers develop and maintain a high level of confidence is essential. Because of the teacher’s knowledge and authority, dancers look to them for a pat on the back. As a result, teachers should pay particular attention to the quality of their interactions with their dancers.

The “Ballet Master” style of teaching dance is a thing of the past. Teachers who berate and embarrass their dancers will rarely improve their performance. Teachers must be sensitive to the individual psychological needs of their dancers just as they are to their physical needs, and should use feedback that fits those needs. For example, some dancers respond to positive reinforcement and react negatively to harsh criticism. Others may need pressure to motivate them. In general though, it is important for teachers to give feedback that is objective, specific, and positive.

The best known, but most underrated technique dancers may utilize to improve their self-confidence is positive thinking. I have been overwhelmed by the number of dancers who are their own worst enemies. Their behavior and attitudes are self-defeating and self-perpetuating. Positive thinking consists of always evaluating yourself positively and objectively, never thinking or making derogatory remarks about yourself.

If mistakes are made, dancers should say, `I made a mistake, now how can I correct it,’ not `I’m awful and I can’t do it.’ The former is positive and objective, the latter is negative and self-defeating.

For dancers with low self-confidence, these positive self-statements may seem alien and may not be believed at first. But with repetition and reinforcement through success and teachers’ feedback, the self-statements will be internalized and the vicious cycle of low self-confidence will be replaced by a growing spiral of high self-confidence.

To prevent the entrance of negative thoughts and to replace them with constructive ones, cue words such as `stop’ or `positive’ are helpful. These cue words help to halt the negative thoughts and refocus attention in a positive direction.

Teachers should actively combat the use of negative evaluations by punishing their use and reinforcing positive self-statements, thereby fostering a healthy, positive attitude in their dancers. With a little time and alot of effort, positive thinking and the other methods we have discussed can have dramatic effects on dancers’ self-confidence.

In conclusion, there are two points that should be remembered. First, self-confidence should be developed and nurtured prior to performance, just like technique and artistry. Second, self-confidence should be monitored continuously, and if a problem arises, it should be dealt with quickly and effectively to enable the racers to maintain their optimal performance level. Additional techniques to enhance self-confidence will be discussed in later articles.

ANXIETY

Recently a young dancer came to us with a problem. It seems that she always danced well in class, but on stage she got so nervous she would dance poorly or lose her balance. She and her teachers believed she had the ability, but they did not know how to deal with her anxiety.

This reaction is not uncommon among dancers. In fact, anxiety, or nervousness, is one of the greatest obstacles to optimal performance. Anxiety results in extreme muscle tension, butterflies in the stomach, and difficulty breathing, among other things. The term “choking” is common, but few people realize that it is an actual physical reaction to stress.

When people are nervous, the muscles in the breathing system contract, blocking off air passages, resulting in insufficient oxygen intake. So, in this condition, people are choking in the real sense of the word. In this nervous state, the body loses strength, coordination, and flexibility, and, quite obviously, can not perform at its highest level.

Such responses are found not only in young dancers but also among experienced dancers. A former student who went on to become a successful dancer was so nervous in her first major performance that she was in tears and did not want to go on stage. Only the experience and sensitivity of the choreographer enabled her to gain her composure and give a good performance.

This illustration demonstrates an extremely high level of anxiety. However, I do not mean to suggest that the opposite of this state is ideal either; being totally relaxed can be just as bad for performance. Clearly too much or too little anxiety is not good for performance. Recent research indicates that a moderate level of anxiety is necessary to perform at a high level. Moderate anxiety boosts adrenaline and diverts energy to necessary parts of the body such as the legs, thereby enhancing strength and coordination.

So far I have told you about things you have probably experienced many times in the past. Now, like the young dancer we talked about earlier, you want to know what you can do about it. Because few dancers suffer from too little anxiety, we shall focus on dealing with excessive anxiety.

One of the most effective techniques to control nervousness is known as progressive relaxation. Its benefits are twofold. First, this method teaches your body how to relax. Second, it shows you how to control and regulate aspects of your body such as muscle tension and breathing. When you get into a stressful situation, you have the ability to calm down and relax.

The following outline describes everything you need to know to use this technique effectively:

1. Progressive relaxation involves tightening and relaxing four major muscle

groups: legs, chest and back, arms and shoulders, and face and neck.

2. Start with the legs and work your way up. Tighten your legs for three seconds, then relax (do twice). Repeat this for each muscle group. Then tighten your whole body for three seconds, and relax.

3. During these exercises pair cuewords with the tightening and relaxing. That is, say ‘tight’ just before you tense your muscles, and say ‘loose’ before you relax. Feel free to make up cuewords you are most comfortable with. The object of this phase of the exercises is to condition your body to the cuewords so when you get nervous, you can say the cuewords and your body will respond accordingly. We should point out that this can be used for increasing anxiety (if you are too relaxed) in addition to relaxing.

4. Breathing is an important part of progressive relaxation. During the relaxation phases, take several deep breaths. A good defense against “choking” is to force yourself to breathe slowly and deeply.

5. After the exercises, make a mental checklist of each part of your body to see if you are relaxed. If you find that you have chronic tension in one particular area, do extra relaxation exercises on that area.

6. During the exercises feel the relaxation and gain an awareness of the difference between tension and relaxation. When you get into an anxious situation, you will then be able to sense your anxiety and you will be able to take positive steps to relieve it.

7. Like any form of training, there is no such thing as instant improvement. Change takes time and effort. So include progressive relaxation in your training program and make it routine.

In summary, look back on your past dance performances. Find the performances in which you danced well and poorly. Then compare how you felt in these performances. Were you relaxed in the good performances and nervous in the bad ones, or vice versa? Look for differences and find your own optimal level of anxiety. Then use progressive relaxation to reach and maintain that state.

MOTIVATION

Have you ever known a dancer who seemed to have everything: strength, skill, coordination, agility. But for some reason he or she doesn’t make it. How about the dancer who doesn’t seem to have those physical gifts? He or she is not exceptionally strong or agile. Yet, for some reason, he or she rises to a level far beyond what is expected.

What makes one succeed against the odds and the other fail to live up to expectations has been a puzzling question to us for some time. One of the characteristics that distinguishes these two kinds of dancers may be motivation. That is, how badly they want to reach the top, how much time and effort they put in. Clearly, a gifted dancer can reach a relatively high level on his or her natural ability alone. In contrast, the less talented dancer will not go far on his or her natural ability. Such individuals need something more in order to excel. That something may be motivation.

How important is motivation in high level performance? In one study, motivation was significantly related to success: The more motivated dancers were, the better they performed.

Motivation gains importance as the level of performance increases. At the advanced level, everyone has the physical capabilities to perform. They are all well-trained and talented. Very often, it is the dancer who puts in the extra hour of training, or just plain wants it more than the others, who gets the role. We believe that among dancers of equal ability it is hard work and a powerful desire to become the best that separates dancers. All of the physical ability in the world is not enough to take you to the top. You must be as prepared psychologically as you are physically. Psychological strengths can often overcome physical limitations.

Motivation plays a influential role in preparation. It is largely responsible for how much time and intensity goes into training and rehearsing. A high degree of motivation will not only provide physical benefits in the form of increased strength and technical ability, but also psychological rewards such as greater self-confidence.

A well-known choreographer once told us that much of the training that is done is physically unnecessary. It is used more as a motivational tool to make dancers tough and confident.

Training to be a dancer is intense, long, and arduous. The constant strain of physical exertion can wear a dancer down both physically and psychologically. As a result, it is important that dance training programs constantly motivate and challenge. Below we outline several methods that have been effective in accomplishing this goal.

1. Dance classes should be fun and interesting. There are few things worse for motivation than routine, monotonous classes. Variety is stressed here. Opportunities for personal achievement and the growth of self-confidence should be available.

2. Performance opportunities should also be a part of a dance program. With a performance goal in mind, dancers will be motivated to work hard toward that goal.

3. Teachers should understand and respect dancers for their individuality. Dancers are motivated by different things and in different ways. Some are self-motivated and can be expected to work hard on their own. Others need to be pushed by their teachers. Still others are sensitive and require alot of positive reinforcement, encouragement, and, most importantly, a gentle touch. It is important for teachers to consider what each dancer needs in order to realize his or her potential and provide it to the best of their ability.

4. The dance class should be meaningful to the dancers. If a dancer sees no point in performing a particular exercise he or she will not be motivated to work hard at it. It may be helpful to explain the rationale behind the exercise if it is not clear. It is important to show how the training relates to the the performing goals.

A useful method for increasing commitment is for teachers to ask their dancers for suggestions in organizing the class. This technique enhances involvement and makes dancers feel more personally responsible for their training.

GOAL SETTING

One of the toughest questions dancers can ask of themselves is “What should my goals be for this year?” Deciding whether to perform, teach, or attain a certain level in class can influence significantly what level is ultimately reached. In the last article, various ways of increasing motivation through a well-planned training program were discussed. The present article will focus on how a sound goal-setting program can be used to enhance motivation and improve performance.

Often, dancers’ level of success will depend upon the type and difficulty of their goals. So what kind of goals should be set? First, goals should be realistic and challenging, yet attainable. That is, goals should be able to be reached only with hard work and commitment. Goals that are too low inhibit motivation because they can be accomplished with little effort. Goals that are too high also have little motivational value because they are too difficult to reach, so it will not motivate dancers to work hard to achieve them. As a result, goals should be reinforcing and should encourage effort and commitment. Goals should also be flexible, i.e., able to be raised or lowered as new information becomes available, such as an unexpected improvement or a role that exceeds initial goals.

There are three primary types of goals: long-term , short-term, and measurable objective goals. Long-term goals such as “I want to become a member of the American Ballet Theatre” should not be emphasized. They are too distant to be judged realistically. Long-term goals should be maintained in the back of the mind and brought forward as the goal approaches year by year.

Short-term goals involve yearly aspirations, what dancers want to accomplish during the upcoming year. Short-term goals are the foundation upon which the goal-setting program is built. There are several things that must be considered in developing goals.

First, how committed dancers are. Given the amount of time and effort dancers are willing to expend, what goals are reasonable? Second, do dancers have the opportunity to attain their goals? These opportunities include dance training facilities, adequate instruction, and sufficient time and finances for training and travel. For example, it would be unrealistic, given his or her present opportunities, for a 17-year-old taking ballet twice a week to have a goal of joining the New York City Ballet Company.

Third, the most difficult factor to measure in developing goals is a dancer’s potential. Even the best teachers can not always judge how good a performer a student will be in the future. Perhaps the best method for gauging a dancer’s potential is to look at results over the past several years, chart the rate of improvement, then project it into the future. This method, however, does not account for the late bloomer.

With these factors considered, it is possible to make a variety of measurable objective goals which, in turn, will help dancers attain their short-term goals. Life-style goals include eating, sleeping, work, and social habits. Training goals describe the type, amount, and intensity of the dance classes. Technical goals involve the new skills that must be acquired to reach the short-term goals. Lastly, performance goals will specify desired levels to be reached during the course of the year progressing toward the short-term goal. Once these various goals have been established, they may be used to increase motivation and commitment through the use of a written contract.

Goal-setting contracts are organized statements of a dancer’s goals and the specific means of attaining them. Research suggests that the following guidelines are necessary for these contracts to be most effective: (1) The contract must be written by the dancer. Teachers may help in setting realistic goals, but the goals must be accepted by the dancer. (2) The goals must be specific and explicit. Concrete statements such as “I want to perform in the school concert” or “I want to master an arabesque”, are important. (3) The goals stated in the contract should be made public among the dancer’s peers, teachers, and other significant individuals.

So far we have described all of the aspects of a goal-setting program. Now let’s put it together into a cohesive formula that will enable dancers to design, organize, and write their own goal-setting contract. The following contract has been useful to dancers we have worked with:

1) Specify short-term goals. Dancers can ask themselves, “where do I want to be in my dancing one year from now”? Dancers should be sure to consider their level of commitment, their opportunities, and, most importantly, their potential. These goals should pertain to issues such as desired roles and advancement in a school or company.

2) List the steps that must be made during the course of the year that are crucial for attaining the short-term goals. These steps should refer to goals such as a particular role that is desired or acceptance into a more advanced class. It must be emphasized that goals are reached by a step-by-step progression. One goal builds on the previous ones in small steps, not unrealistically large jumps.

3) Once the performance goals are determined, dancers, along with the assistance of their teachers, should conduct what is called a task analysis. That is, determine what must be done to attain these goals. What life-style, training, and technical goals should be set to accomplish the task? Note that these goals should be specific and measurable.

4) The goals should be written down and signed by the dancer and his or her teacher.

5) Teachers may want to hold class meetings to enable the dancers to discuss their goals among themselves, or have the dancers post their contracts for others to see. An excellent motivational device that could result from this is to take two or three dancers at a similar ability level and with similar goals and have them work together.

6) Another useful tool for maintaining commitment is the training diary. Such records keep track of sleeping and eating habits, and technical improvement. The logs can act as reinforcers as progress toward the life-style, training, and technical goals is made.

Finally, we would like to point out a few precautions in undertaking a goal-setting program. First, reaching goals should not be black and white, win or lose. Rather, the degree of attainment should be emphasized. Goals are not always reached, but in almost all of the cases there is improvement and deriving satisfaction from those gains is essential to continued motivation. Second, the effort involved in striving for a goal is as important as reaching it. Personal and artistic growth comes more from the effort than the attainment. Teachers should constantly stress this notion. Third, not accomplishing goals should be viewed objectively, i.e., as information to be used for future goal-setting. An important aspect of a good goal-setting program is that the goals are flexible and can be modified (either up or down). Goals, and progress toward them, should be re-evaluated on a regular basis. As goals are re-evaluated, the causes for not reaching them should be sought. It may be that a change in training or technical goals will make it possible to attain goals that were unreachable initially.

Ultimately, a sound goal-setting program will enhance motivation and produce better performance which, in turn, should reinforce the habits and routines first adopted in the program. Thus, the ideal outcome to such a program is a spiraling effect of greater motivation, improved results and increasingly higher goals.

DANCE IMAGERY I

The value of mental imagery in improving performance has been supported by considerable research and accounts by many dancers. Dance Imagery refers to repeatedly imagining a dance performance with the goal of improving specific technical and artistic skills. Ideally, it involves reproducing the total sensory and physical experience of actual performance including visual,

auditory, tactile, and muscular sensations. Thus, Dance Imagery is more than just “mental” rehearsal. Imagery can be used to enhance psychological, emotional, and technical skills. Because Dance Imagery is a broad topic, it will be addressed in two parts.

This article will show dancers how to develop a Dance Imagery program to suit their personal needs. The next article will look at various factors that affect how well Dance Imagery will work and provide hints on what to work on and how to get the most out of imagery. As in the past, an example will be used to help illustrate the program.

1. Goal-setting – Prior to beginning the imagery sessions, two issues must be addressed: (a) Define the problem – Dancers need to specify what problem areas they want to focus on in the Dance Imagery. During the Summer of 1986, we developed an Dance Imagery program for a talented young dancer (we shall call her Susan) in order to deal with two areas: Lack of self-confidence and

inconsistency in her dancing. Throughout her career she was her own worst enemy, always having self-doubts and making negative self-statements. It was so bad that she would, for example, think about making a mistake while waiting for her cue. Also, she made far more errors while performing than her ability dictated and lacked consistency from performance to performance and (b) Imagery goal – Her goal was to become more self-confident and truly believe she could dance at a high level consistently.

2. Anxiety hierarchy – Dancers can make a list of practice and performance situations in order of the amount of anxiety they provoke. For example, the least anxious situation for Susan was rehearsing alone in her company’s studio. and the most anxious, performing solo in a large production. In between these extremes should be situations of increasing difficulty and stress. Dancers should be sure that their anxiety hierarchy is consistent with their ability. For example, if a dancer is still an apprentice, he or she should imagine performing at a beginning level.

3. Step-by-step progression – Dancers should begin their imagery at the least anxious step and rehearse the desired skills until they feel good at that level, then move on to the next step. They should not advance to a higher level until they have mastered the skill at the present level. For example, Susan made sure she was confident and consistent in her imagery rehearsing

alone in her company’s studio before she imagined herself rehearsing with the company in the theater. Dancers’ goal will be realized when they can perform their imagery goal at the highest, most stressful level.

4. Dance Imagery sessions – Dance Imagery sessions should be done in a quiet, comfortable place where they will not be disturbed. Dancers should do the imagery sessions immediately after the relaxation exercises described in the earlier article. When people are relaxed, they are more open and suggestible to change. Imagery should be done at least three times a week for 10-15 minutes (the more, the better).

5. Self-talk – As was discussed in an earlier article, dancers should always think positively. Particularly when working on a self-confidence and anxiety, negative self-talk, which comes from old attitudes, can push its way into the imagery. So dancers should control their self-talk, always keeping it positive. Early on, negative self-talk would pop into Susan’s head out of habit. But with considerable effort and concentration, she gradually replaced the negative with the positive. She was retraining her beliefs and self-statements in a constructive direction.

6. Rewind the film – Imagery is like a film running through a person’s head. If, for example, when working on a technical skill, dancers make a mistake, they should rewind the film and repeat it until they do it correctly. They should not let the error go by because then they are reinforcing the old, incorrect images they are trying to change. These types of mistakes in imagery should be expected because these habits may have been ingrained for years. When beginning imagery, people sometimes lack control over their images. For example, Susan initially had little control over her images. She could not perform four techniques without making an error in her imagery. This problem reflected her basic lack of self-confidence in my dancing ability. However, with practice, she gradually learned to control her images and showed improvement in her imagined performances. After two months of a regular imagery program, Susan was confident and consistent in her imagery.

How did Susan perform the following year? On a psychological level, she felt more self-confident. She no longer had negative thoughts and prior to performing she was positive and enthusiastic. She knew that she would perform well. Her instructors and choreographers noticed a significant change in her performances. She was dancing with more confidence, authority, and skill.

Though other factors such as increased physical development and maturity may have contributed to her improvement, Susan believed that the imagery program was the primary reason for her success. It has since become an integral part of her training regimen.

Finally, Dance Imagery is not just mental. It is an actual physical experience that can produce real psychological and physiological changes. Dancers should make Dance Imagery a regular part of their dance program. It should be routine. Like any form of training, Dance Imagery requires

commitment and effort. Mental imagery is not magic, so dancers should not expect miracles. But with time and effort, the potential for making psychological and physical gains can be dramatic and Dance Imagery can be a significant contributor to dancers’ success.

DANCE IMAGERY II

The last article demonstrated how dancers may develop and implement an individualized Dance Imagery program. With hard work and commitment, dancers may be taking that extra step needed for them to dance their very best. But adhering to the program will not necessarily produce results. Consequently, this article will look at some factors that affect how well imagery works and offer some hints that will enable dancers to maximize the value of their Dance Imagery program.

Research indicates that there are several factors that influence the effectiveness of mental imagery. First, imagery perspective, i.e., whether dancers imagine themselves from an external or internal position. External imagery refers to the view as that of an outside observer or watching a movie. Internal imagery is characterized by the view from inside oneself, looking through one’s eyes. It is believed that the internal view produces better results because people are better able to reproduce all of their senses, whereas the external view relies mostly on the visual aspects of the imagery. The more senses that can be replicated, the more “real” the imagery will seem.

People have different imagery styles. Some are totally internal or external, while others use both. Dancers should use the style that is natural for them and then, if they are external, experiment with an internal view and see if they can develop the use of both perspectives. Other factors that seem to be related to effective imagery are the vividness and controllability of the images. The more vivid and clear the images are, the better able dancers will be to reproduce the thoughts, feelings, and sensations of actual performance. Dancers can be aware of what senses are used in dancing and include them in their imagery. During the imagery sessions, dancers can take time to focus on all of the senses, e.g., what sounds dancers hear, how their body feels, what they are thinking?

In order for dancers to develop vivid imagery, it helps to have a clear picture of what they look like dancing. The use of videos in training and performing is the best way to form clear self-images. A vivid picture of how dancers perform will aid them in learning new skills in their imagery by enabling dancers to see the difference between the way they do something now and the way they should do it. It will also help dancers understand better technical instructions offered by your coaches, enabling them to “see” what they mean.

Similarly, without some control over their images, making changes in the desired psychological or technical skill will be difficult. Once again, people vary in the controllability of their images. So if dancers find that their images are not clear or they are unable to control them immediately, they should not be discouraged. Imagery, like any other skill, can be developed and mastered with practice.

Whether dancers work on a technical or psychological skill may also influence how well the imagery works. Two factors seem to be important. First, the amount of practice time. Because technical skills have a physiological basis, i.e., the muscles are trained to react in a certain way,

it takes more time and effort to learn or retrain the skill. So dancers should be prepared to spend extra time to learn and develop technical skills. Imagery can facilitate the learning process by being used before and during class or rehearsal or prior to performance. Dancers can then mentally rehearse the skill when the actual muscles are being used, thereby enhancing and reinforcing learning of the skill. In contrast, psychological skills such as self-confidence may not have that “set in granite” physiological foundation, so these areas may be easier to change.

Second, imagery can produce negative results if dancers rehearse the wrong skills in their imagery. As a result, it is necessary to know the correct way of performing the skill in order to substitute it for the old incorrect one. So a clear understanding and image of the correct way of performing the skill is important. Repeatedly watching films of top dancers will help develop a good image and aid in its carryover to learning.

The four areas that are worked on most in mental imagery are self-confidence, anxiety, concentration, and technical skills. This section will offer helpful hints that will assist dancers in getting the most out of their imagery program.

1. Self-confidence – The two things to focus on here are positive self-statements and successful imagery. Thinking positively will instill in dancers a belief that they can be successful, enabling them to approach the imagery in a constructive way. Then seeing themselves succeeding in their imagery will reinforce those initial beliefs that they can dance well. So a spiraling effect results, whereby positive thinking improves dancers’ imagery which, in turn, increases their self-confidence.

2. Anxiety – The relaxation exercises discussed in an earlier article are essential for becoming aware of and controlling excessive anxiety. Throughout the imagery sessions, dancers should monitor their bodies: Are they nervous or tense? If dancers are, they can use the breathing and cuewords to relax. However, dancers should only use the relaxation exercises if they feel that the anxiety is hurting their imagery. One goal of imagery is to familiarize the body with the feelings experienced during performance. Since a moderate amount of anxiety enables the body to perform at a high level, some anxiety is expected and desired. Dancers should think back to their best performances and see if they can pinpoint the anxiety level that enabled them to dance their best. Then during imagery, dancers may use the relaxation exercises to reach and maintain that level.

3. Concentration – Problems with concentration result from either focusing on the wrong things, too many, or too few things during a performance. First, it is important to know what should be concentrated on, e.g., the technique, the space, the music, the feeling, and what should not, e.g., the audience and extraneous thoughts unrelated to the performance. Second, during imagery dancers can narrow their focus to the appropriate areas. Dancers can imagine, for instance, that they are dancing in a tunnel with only the stage in sight, thereby blocking out unwanted distractions. One of the great advantages of imagery as compared to real practice is that dancers do not have a lot of distractions, so they can concentrate on those areas that they want to work on.

4. Technical skills – Often it is difficult to make technical changes and correct bad habits that have been done for years. Sometimes people just can not seem to change their images. One way dancers can establish control and facilitate change is to begin their imagery in slow motion, frame by frame (using the film analogy). This enables dancers to concentrate on the different parts of the skill instead of the whole thing all at once. With each frame, dancers can freeze themselves in the position that they want to be in, then move on to the next frame. As control develops, the imagery changes, and the new skill is learned. Once learning begins, the imagery can be speeded up and the components of the skill can be combined.

By building a personalized Dance Imagery program that considers the above issues such as vividness and controllability, dancers can be sure that they are utilizing imagery in such a fashion that will maximize the benefits that accrue from its use.

PREPARING FOR PERFORMANCE

Dancers have been training for many years and are now physically, technically, and psychologically ready for the performance. They have laid the foundation that will allow them to perform at their highest level. Now all that remains is for them to prepare specifically for the upcoming performance. The following is a compilation of various techniques from discussions with top dancers, instructors, and choreographers. Though there are many ways to prepare for a performance, all of these have one thing in common: they work for many top dancers. Dancers can try them out and find the ones that work best for them.

There have been weeks and months of rehearsal, learning the role and refining technique. As the performance date approaches, the emphasis should shift to artistry, interpretation, and feeling of the role. Good sleeping habits are another important part of preparation. With the performance approaching, it is essential for dancers to maintain their discipline in order for them to get the rest they need. It should be noted that fatigue caused by even one night of inadequate sleep can adversely affect a person and takes up to four days for recovery. Particularly if dancers are unusually tired or ill, extra sleep can allow the body to recuperate. Also, it is the sleep two nights before a stressful activity that is the most important for being rested on the day of the performance. So if dancers are performing on Saturday, they should be sure to sleep well on Thursday.

With the performance nearing, it is valuable to become familiar with the performance space. Dancers should run through the performance in the new space. They can get a good feeling of the dances in that space and use imagery to rehearse and heighten the familiarity of the performance. Remember, “familiarity enhances performance”.

It is also time for dancers to begin a routine that can be used prior to every performance. Mental imagery can be a useful tool in preparation. First, just before dancers go to sleep, they can imagine themselves performing the way they want. This allows them to go to sleep feeling relaxed and confident. Then when they rise in the morning, they can repeat the imagery. The imagery will build self-confidence, get their adrenaline flowing, and focus their mind on the performance.

Pre-performance eating habits will also affect dancing. Dancers should eat lightly throughout the day and allow two to three hours for digestion. Eating too much or too soon before a performance will cause energy to be diverted away from the muscles to the stomach, thereby interfering with the body’s ability to perform at its highest level.

A thorough physical warm-up is critical. Dancers can not perform at their best when their bodies are cold and tight. In addition, adequate exercise helps injury prevention by increasing circulation, flexibility, and muscle efficiency. Also, dancers who are properly warmed up will feel more relaxed and self-confident.

Dancers should arrive at the theater with plenty of time for performance preparation including warm-up, costume, make-up, and personal private time. Rushing through preparation will tend to increase anxiety and inhibit concentration. As much as two to three hours should be set aside for preparation.

Just prior to the performance, dancers should give themselves time for final preparation. Dancers should develop their own personal routines that fit their individual needs. These routines could include final stretching, make-up refinements, and last moment review of choreography.

With the performance imminent, dancers can do their final mental preparation. They can think positively and remind themselves of the important aspects of the performance. Lastly, they can wait for their cue, stop thinking, and dance.

The performance day does conclude after the dancers have taken their final bow. After any performance, emotions such as joy or disappointment arise. It is important to realize these feelings and allow them to run their course. Suppressing them will only cause anxiety and frustration.

An objective evaluation of the performance is also useful. Considerable knowledge about both the positive and negative aspects of dancers’ performances can be gained that may aid the dancer and the choreographer in improving their subsequent performances. This evaluation should be conducted soon after the performance so the impressions are still fresh in their minds. What they did right, what they did wrong, what changes, if any, need to be made, are a few of the questions that should be asked.

By following this pre- and post-performance routine, dancers can be sure that they are maximally prepared for every performance. In addition, this practice will contribute to a higher level of performing and greater consistency from performance to performance.

MEETING PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS INDIVIDUALLY

The roles of the dance instructor are many and diverse. The instructor must be a teacher, trainer, parent, friend, and a psychologist. This is a lot of responsibility for one person, and it takes considerable experience before an instructor is capable of fulfilling all of these roles effectively.

Much time and energy has been spent on educating dance teachers on the physical and technical aspects of the performing arts. However, only in recent years have individuals in the dance world begun to examine the role that psychology plays in dance. Specifically, the dance community has begun to appreciate the contributions that the field of psychology can make to dance instruction in addition to the effect that instructors have on the psychological and emotional development of dancers.

This influence is profound because the beliefs that dancers develop about themselves through dance can have a powerful effect on other aspects of their lives. As a result, how teachers affect this process should not be considered haphazardly. Instructors should give careful thought to how they can teach their students a healthy, positive approach to preparation and performance at all levels of ability. More importantly, instructors should consider not only how they can only help their students to become better dancers, but also better people.

Perhaps the best piece of advice that can be given to dance teachers is to treat their students as individuals with unique personalities, abilities, and interests. Often a good dance instructor is thought to be the one who has excellent technical skills, or who knows every nuance of performing, or who communicates well. But a more precise definition of a good instructor may be one who is able to discern and understand the individual needs of each student and then fulfill those needs in any way that is required. Instructors should study each of their students and determine what their needs are. Does one need more encouragement to build his self-confidence? Does another need to be calmed down because she gets too nervous? In order for teachers to maximize their students’ ability, it is essential to put in the time and energy to understand them. It may be useful to keep written profiles of each dancer indicating their needs, how they can best be met, and any changes that occur over time.

Another point worth noting is that as intuitive psychologists, dance instructors should rely on their experience and insight in determining how to satisfy students’ needs. For example, babying sensitive dancers may make them happy, but it may not be the best thing for them artistically or personally. Many noted instructors have helped dancers prepare for performance (and life) by being a little tough on them.

The most obvious approach is not always the most appropriate. It can be worthwhile for teachers to experiment with different methods to enhance performance, effort, and satisfaction, and find the one that work best for each dancer.

Several studies indicate that persons of similar ability exhibit similar needs. Elite individuals desired an instructor who showed a willingness to get to know them as people and to offer them emotional and motivational support. Though not using dancers, these findings make sense. Our observations at the advanced level, where technical proficiency has already been established, indicate that instructors’ primary responsibility and concern is to provide an atmosphere that is conducive to optimal performance. In contrast, less skilled dancers have a need for more concrete characteristics in their teachers such as technical knowledge and understanding because at this level the learning of the requisite skills is the central focus. It may be concluded that dancers of varying abilities appear to have different instructional needs that must be fulfilled. Further, this information may be useful to school directors in selecting and assigning teachers with particular skills to appropriate ability groups.

It is likely that the goal of all dance instructors is to assist their students to fulfill their dance potential and to ensure that they perceive their dance experience as satisfying and enjoyable. By taking the time to learn about and understand their students and to meet their needs to the best of their ability, dance instructors can be sure that they have achieved their goal.

REINFORCEMENT FOR THE DANCE INSTRUCTOR

One important technique dance instructors employ while providing instruction is reinforcement. Reinforcement, i.e., overt approval of desired skills, behaviors, and attitudes, can be used to increase self-confidence and motivation and to develop technical and physical skills. The goal and result of effective reinforcement is to increase the likelihood that a desired skill will be repeated and to instill in dancers the belief that they can execute particular skills.

However, reinforcement in itself does not always work. The timing of the reinforcement is critical to its effectiveness. A typical problem associated with reinforcement involves either over- or under-reinforcement. Instructors may reinforce every skill regardless of quality. This approach may enhance motivation, but does not provide students with information about whether they executed the skill properly. As a result, they are unable to distinguish between correct and incorrect execution. Additionally, constant reinforcement may create dancers who only remain motivated and perform well when reinforcement is present. Too infrequent reinforcement has a similar effect. Lack of reinforcement also provides little information about how dancers are performing and tends to produce low motivation and poor skill acquisition.

Ideally, reinforcement should be intermittent and only given when the desired skills have been demonstrated. This variable reinforcement enables dancers to perceive a connection between proper execution and the reinforcement and provides them with necessary information relative to the skill. Reinforcement of this type produces increased motivation, rapid skill acquisition, and a high degree of satisfaction derived from the mastery of new skills and the enhanced performance that results.

Another issue that influences the effectiveness of reinforcement relates to the type of reinforcement that is given at the various stages of learning. It is important to give reinforcement that is specific to what is being learned. Providing inappropriate reinforcement can inhibit learning by focusing dancers’ attention on information that is not relevant to what is being learned. In particular, at early stages of learning, acquiring technical skills is emphasized, so reinforcement should be specific to those skills. For example, if a dancer is learning to proper body alignment, the teacher can specifically reinforce demonstration of the correct alignment rather than more general reinforcement such as how the dancer is moving. Thus, technical reinforcement is both motivating and informational for early learning.

In contrast to this technical reinforcement, at later stages of learning, the focus becomes more outcome-oriented. In other words, once the technical skills have been mastered, the outcome is stressed. For instance, the instructor can reinforce the artistry of the dance. By doing so, the teacher indicates to the student the desired outcome of well-executed skills. Once again, outcome reinforcement is both motivating and informational for dancers at this later stage of learning.

A technique that some dancer instructors have used successfully is verbal “punishment”. This method is generally not recommended because of the potentially negative consequences, but can be effective in some situations. For it to be useful, it is important for instructors to demonstrate convincingly that they care for and respect their dancers, share common goals, and that the “punishment” is a motivational learning technique that is in no way directed toward dancers on a personal level. Stating explicitly the intent of the verbal “punishment” saves dancers considerable negative emotional energy focused on the teacher. However, verbal “punishment” should be employed very selectively and only with careful consideration given to the dancers’ individual needs.

Another issue dancer teachers should consider is the emergence of self-reinforcement skills on the part of their dancers. In other words, teachers can encourage their students to reinforce and critique themselves. This process can be accomplished in several steps. First, instructors can nurture in their dancers an understanding of their own physical, technical, artistic, and psychological attributes. In other words, they can teach them to identify the strengths and weaknesses in their performances. Second, they can make communication two-way. Instead of teachers telling their students what they did wrong and how to correct it, they can ask the dancers to tell them. Thus, in addition to an awareness of the many aspects of their performances, dancers develop the ability to critique objectively their own dancing. Third, when students look to their instructors for approval, teachers can ask them to evaluate and reinforce their own performances.

Emergence of these self-reinforcement skills will contribute to the development of more complete dancers and will add to the satisfaction, enjoyment, and confidence that is derived from becoming a better dancer. Moreover, the dancers’ self-understanding will increase rather than undermine the teachers’ importance and effectiveness. This may result by having the students provide additional information about their performances for the instructors to work with, allowing them to offer better feedback, and enabling the dancers to better understand and integrate the corrective information.

Increased awareness and control of the manner in which dance instructors convey information will enable them to enhance the crucial communication process between teacher and student. What results is improved technical development, better performance, and a greater sense of accomplishment and self-confidence on the part of their students.

CONCENTRATION IN DANCE

Concentration is perhaps the single most misunderstood psychological factor in dance. In fact, in a recent conversation, an elite dancer indicated that she improved her concentration by staring at the second-hand of a watch for an extended period of time. Though she may think she did, most of the theory and research to date suggests that is not the case. That exercise may work if the activity she participated in required her to stare at one thing for a long time.

Dance, however, is not such a activity. Dance requires the ability to concentrate on a variety of changing things at once. Another misconception about concentration is that it is an arduous, effortful process. Yet anyone who has danced “in the zone”, that period when a dancer is at his or her peak and is dancing without thought or conscious control, knows that ideal concentration is an effortless experience of total awareness.

What then is concentration and how can it be improved? In order to explain concentration, it will be useful to introduce a term, define it, then apply it to concentration in dance. Dr. Robert Nideffer, a leading researcherin concentration, suggests that the foundation of concentration is the “attentional field”. The attentional field is everything outside of people that their senses could pick up plus everything inside of them, such as thoughts, emotions, and physical responses, that they could focus on at one time.

Applied to dance, good concentration involves focusing on performance-relevant aspects of the attentional field. In other words, concentrating only on those things in the attentional field that are important for dancers to perform. In contrast, poor concentration involves focusing on performance-irrelevant aspects of the attentional field. That is, concentrating on those things that are not necessary to dance.

What then are some performance-irrelevant things that can pop into a dancer’s head and hurt dance performance: the audience, a mistake early in the performance, a difficult technique at the end of the performance. Every dancer has many distractors that have interfered with performance.

More importantly, what are the performance-relevant things that dancers must focus on to perform well? Most obviously, you have to concentrate on the movement and the artistry, but there are several others as well. You must be aware of the stage, as changes in space will affect the performance. Also, you must focus on the other dancers because they will influence your performance. In addition, you must concentrate on yourself and use information obtained about the dance, the space, and the other dancers to dictate any adjustments that must be made. Finally, you should have the proper temporal focus. In other words, dancers must be focused on the present not the past or the future.

A classic example of a loss of concentration and its result is sometimes seen in large company performance. A dancer performs exceptionally well in the first part of the program, but falters in the second half because he begins to anticipate the bravos and the reviews. Returning to the notion of good concentration, the bravos and reviews are performance-irrevelant to performing well.

Loss of concentration also affects dancers physically. When dancers tell themselves, “I’ve done it” or “I’ve got it made”, in essence, they are telling their body to relax. So, in addition to the difficulties in performing caused by the inability to focus properly, the body lacks the necessary adrenaline, oxygen, and blood flow that is essential for dancers to perform at their peak. In other situations, loss of concentration has the opposite effect, i.e., it creates too much anxiety.

During a performance, a loss of concentration produces thoughts such as “I’ve got to concentrate” and “try harder” in the belief that these will improve concentration. However, this type of self-induced pressure tends to increase anxiety levels, which have a twofold negative effect on performance. First, the anxiety causes muscle tension, butterflies, and choking, which interfere with the body’s ability to perform at a high level. Second, concentration is hurt even more because now the focus is on the muscle tension, breathing difficulties, and general discomfort associated with the anxiety.

There are, fortunately, several simple techniques that may be used to improve concentration. First, when concentration begins to wander, cuewords may be used to refocus attention. In other words, when dancers are distracted, they can repeat a cueword that enables them to regain the proper concentration. One cueword that is quite popular, but, in fact, ineffective is “concentrate”. This cueword causes dancers to concentrate on concentrating rather than on, once again, the performance-relevant aspects of performing. Different cuewords can be used depending upon what the primary focus must be. For example, if a dancer is concerned about musicality, a good cueword might be “music”. If the steps worry a dancer, then “steps” may be helpful. Saying these cuewords to themselves (or out loud if that helps) serves two purposes. One, it blocks out distracting thoughts and, two, it refocuses concentration onto something that will enable the dancer to perform better.

Another method for improving concentration involves using a cueobject rather than a cueword. That is, when dancers lose their concentration, they can have an object that they can focus on. A useful cueobject might be a prop or a spot on the stage. By focusing on these cueobjects, it can better prepare dancers for successful completion of a difficult aspect of the performance.

Finally, breathing can be used as a cueobject to regain concentration. When concentration is lost, dancers can focus on their breathing by taking deep breaths. The benefits are twofold. First, like other cueobjects, it enables dancers to refocus their concentration. Second, by getting more oxygen into their body, dancers will relax and perform better.

An important part of improving concentration is developing awareness of what can be focused on and then gaining control over what is focused on. An exercise known as focal training can be helpful in developing these concentration skills. The next time dancers are practicing, they can take fifteen minutes for the exercise. The first five minutes they should concentrate entirely on the steps. Dancers will find that they are very aware of the steps, but do not respond to space changes very well. The second five minutes they should concentrate wholly on the space. They should not focus on the steps at all. In this case, your movement may not be very good, but you will adjust to space changes well. The third five minutes they should concentrate solely on themselves, their movement, their technique. They will find that they have a keen sense of what you are doing on the choreography.

This exercise teaches dancers an awareness of and control over what can be concentrated on. What must be done next is to determine the appropriate balance between the three. This can be accomplished by, first, having dancers figure out their personal concentrational style. For example, some dancers don’t focus on the technique enough, others don’t focus on the artistry enough. Second, while rehearsing, they can redirect some of their concentration onto the neglected object. Initially, this will take some effort, but with practice, like developing a technical skill, these concentration skills will become natural and instinctive.

The result of dancers developing their concentration skills are simple and practical. When they are in a performance, they will possess the ability to maintain their concentration. However, as often happens, if they begin to lose their concentration, they will have mastered the skills necessary to regain it. Lastly, this newfound ability will enable dancers to perform at a consistently high level, which will result in greater satisfaction and fun for them when performing.

INFORMATION FEEDBACK

Perhaps the single most important skill that dance teachers must develop in order to be good instructors is their ability to convey information effectively. During instruction, technical development is only as good as the quality of the information feedback that is provided by the teacher. As a result, consideration should be given to several areas related to effective information feedback.

Type of Feedback

There are three primary ways of conveying technical information: verbal, visual, and kinesthetic. The most common method is verbal feedback, which involves telling students what to do, e.g., the teacher tells the student to turn out or point the toe. Verbal feedback is, however, the least effective technique for teaching because verbal information does not transfer as quickly or effectively to the neuromuscular level as the other types of feedback.

Visual feedback is a more useful method for effective information feedback. This type of feedback consists of having the instructor demonstrate rather than verbalize the particular technical information or by having the students view the visual feedback on a video. Visual, as compared to verbal, feedback transfers more effectively to neuromuscular learning and, as a result, will produce better learning. This facilitated learning explains why dancers perform better after watching a performance of advanced dancers. However, a significant problem with visual feedback is that teachers can not be sure that their pupils are looking at the desired aspect of the demonstration.

The most effective technique for conveying information is kinesthetic feedback. That is, instead of telling or showing their students what to do instructors can physically place them in the appropriate position and run them through the desired motion. Kinesthetic feedback, rather than having to be transferred from the brain, provides direct information to the body at the neuromuscular level, thereby making the feedback and the learning process more effective. In addition, this type of feedback will enhance students’ kinesthetic awareness, enabling them to integrate the feedback that is provided by the dance teacher.

It should be noted that, though the effectiveness of the three types of feedback generally holds true, individuals have different processing styles, i.e., some people are verbally-oriented, others are visually-oriented, etc. Consequently, all three types of feedback will be useful in different situations and with different dancers. Dance instructors can be sensitive to these personal styles and provide the type of feedback that will best enable their students to process the instructional information.

Corrective Feedback

In providing instruction, it is important to not only indicate what students are doing wrong, but also to emphasize the correct technique. It must be understood that the appropriate corrective action is not implicit in the description of the incorrect action. For example, telling students that they are not turning out does not provide enough information for them to determine what “turn out” means. It is also essential to be specific in the corrective information. Returning to the example above, “turn out” could be considered corrective, but it does not provide feedback relative to how that can be accomplished. So during instruction, information feedback should convey “what” has to be done and “how” to do it.

Amount of Feedback

There is often a tendency on the part of dance teachers to give their students too much information. For example, an instructor may tell a pupil to turn out, drop the shoulders, and point the toes. This deluge of information causes dancers to be overloaded with information and are thus unable to focus sufficiently on any one piece of information in order for them to utilize it. Too much information inhibits the ability on the part of students to concentrate effectively on the most important information offered by the teacher. As a result, it is suggested that only a single piece of information that is most relevant to the particular instruction be offered at any one time. Furthermore, additional information should not be provided until students have demonstrated that they have integrated and utilized the prior feedback.

Positive-Negative-Positive Approach

Though there is no one prescribed method of conveying information, there is a teaching approach that has been widely accepted in the teaching community. It is referred to as the “positive-negative-positive” approach and it involves three steps. One, the correct execution of the skill is explained and demonstrated. This first step provides an initial positive orientation to the instruction and also gives students a correct point of reference for comparison in the second step. Two, how the pupil executed the skill, i.e., what the dancer did incorrectly, is explained and demonstrated. The second step allows students to understand what they did wrong and enables them to compare the improper with the proper execution of the skill. Three, step one is repeated in order to reinforce the correct execution and re-orient the student in a positive, constructive direction. It should also not be assumed that students readily understand the information that is provided. A useful method to determine whether the conveyed feedback is understood is to ask the students to explain and demonstrate the skill themselves.

COMMITMENT AND SACRIFICE

Some call it desire. Others call it being hungry. We call it is the Starring Attitude. The Starring Attitude is what separates the best from the best of the rest, the soloist from the company member, the true star from the flash-in-the-pan.

We know what the Starring Attitude can do, but what exactly is it? The Starring Attitude is an all-consuming drive to be the very best that dancers can be. It permeates every aspect of dancers’ lives. Everything that they do is directed toward, and considered in terms of, how it might affect performance. The central focus and dominating motivation in life is to excel. This is not meant to indicate that all dancers with a Starring Attitude do is train, train, train. Rather, they see the importance of having a well-balanced life that includes intellectual, athletic, and social interests, and makes efforts to develop such a holistic lifestyle.

One important component of the Starring Attitude is Commitment. Commitment comes with the understanding that what dancers do out of the studio is as important as what occurs in the studio. Furthermore, dancers with Commitment will do absolutely anything that is necessary for them to perform at their highest level. They utilize every technique and resource available to them that may enhance their performances. Committed dancers are constantly looking for new ways to develop themselves in all of the areas that contribute to performance. These areas include such simple practices as warming up sufficiently before classes, eating a healthy diet, and maintaining a regular sleeping pattern. and employing more sophisticated methods such as utilizing psychological and physiological experts in order to maximize their preparation and alleviate weaknesses that may hamper performance.

It may be thought that all elite dancers use these practices. However, considerable variation in adherence can be found even at the highest level of performance and it is often possible to discriminate the great from the good dancers based on these practices.

Another component of the Starring Attitude is Sacrifice. Sacrifice involves the willingness to avoid things that may interfere with optimal performance. Some notable Sacrifices include abstaining from drugs and alcohol, not staying up late, and refraining from unhealthy foods. This is not to say that these dancers live a joyless life of deprivation. Instead, they see the merit of occasional indulgences in their holistic view of performance preparation and life and, when appropriate, will allow themselves, for example, a chocolate sundae or a night on the town. However, these indulgences are permitted with an understanding of their potentially negative effects on performance such as weight gain or tiredness and a strategy for ways of minimizing them. Simply put, dancers wit h the Starring Attitude are willing to make performing their first and foremost priority and are willing to sacrifice things in other areas of their life that may be fun and tempting, but will also hinder their performances.

How then does the Starring Attitude develop? The Starring Attitude can evolve in several ways. It can develop from dancers’ upbringing. Parents exert the most significant influence on their children when they are young. As a result, parents can create an atmosphere that motivates their children to excel and succeed in whatever activities they choose to participate. This type of achievement-oriented environment results in a high level of accomplishment on the part of young people. Though often criticized for the extreme pressures exerted on the children by the parents, an environment that emphasizes self-motivation and the rewarding of effort regardless of the result can provide youths with confidence, discipline, and a strong, positive sense of self.

The Starring Attitude can also develop from the dance school or company and its teachers. Invariably, a company is a mirror of its leadership. The attitudes, beliefs and habits that are exhibited by the teachers will be reflected in the dancers. If the teachers possess a Starring Attitude, then, first, they will be more likely to attract dancers with Starring Attitudes and, second, their dancers will adopt their attitudes and behaviors.

However, it is unlikely that an entire company will be made up of dancers with the Starring Attitude. As a result, some dancers may not push themselves to the degree that is required to become a star. If this happens, it is important that the teachers instill the Starring Attitude in their dancers. For this to occur, teachers must be willing to put strong demands in terms of Commitment and Sacrifice on their dancers. These demands may take the form of goals, rules, and expectations.

It is imperative for the teachers to stand by their edicts. Teachers work very hard for their dancers and, in the case of a scholarship dancer, programs make a significant financial investment in them. It is not unreasonable for the teachers to expect to get as much from their dancers as they are giving to them.

In the event that this reciprocity is not evident, and some of the dancers are not demonstrating the Starring Attitude, it is the responsibility of the teachers to replace these dancers with others who do exhibit it. Unless this difficult yet necessary action is taken, two negative outcomes will occur. First, a “best of the rest” mentality will propagate itself throughout the company, which results in dancers who are satisfied with being the best in their company, but who perceive themselves as “second-class citizens” when compared with other dance companies. Second, this attitude will be handed down from the established to the future company members. What results is a company-wide negative attitude that infects successive generations of dancers, thereby miring a company in mediocrity for ad infinitum.

As indicated above, people acquire many of their attitudes, beliefs, and habits through modeling of those around them. Consequently, in contrast to the above scenario, being surrounded by dancers who are high achieving and demonstrate the Starring Attitude will tend to have a carryover effect to those around them. This phenomenon can be especially relevant in maintaining successful

companies from generation to generation of dancers. One important factor in sustaining this quality is the willingness of the established stars to take developing dancers “under their wings” and show them what it takes to make it to the top. Part of this teaching process is to demonstrate to them the Starring Attitude.

Situations where this succession process does not develop effectively is in companies where the stars do not interact with the younger dancers. This separation created a chasm of ability, attitudes and habits between themselves and the aspiring dancers that may inhibit them from acquiring the Starring Attitude. This, in turn, may slow or stop their progress in attaining true elite status.

Clearly, the Starring Attitude is an essential ingredient for success in dance. However, dancers do not have to be members of a large company to have a Starring Attitude. All dancers need is the desire to become the very best that they can be. This may be a soloist for a prestigious company, a member of a small company or performing in a school production. The Starring Attitude will enable dancers to get the most out of their ability and will allow for the complete realization of their potential. This process will also provide significant personal benefits in the form of self-confidence, motivation, and discipline that will be well used in other areas of their lives. And when that is accomplished, then everyone is a star.

BURN-OUT IN DANCE: CAUSES AND RELIEF

Burn-out is a condition that has been recognized in the business and sports world for many years. Considerable time and effort has been spent understanding the causes and effects of burn-out. However, only recently has burn-out been addressed in the performing arts. The significance of and concern over burn-out among dancers has received increasing attention as more and more performers are leaving dance for physical and emotional reasons.

Burn-out is characterized as a condition of physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion caused by the inability to adequately cope with persistent stress. This stress derives from dancers’ perceptions that the demands placed upon them exceed their ability to master those demands. Though some stress is experienced in all aspects of life, the performing arts is a rarified environment that accentuates the typical levels of stress that are often faced. First, dancers are placed in a dramatically visible setting. Moreover, particularly for principal dancers, this stress must be dealt with alone. Second, in the close environs of a dance company, personality differences and conflicts are magnified. Third, dance training, that includes classes, travel, and apparel, is costly. This burden on the parents is often transferred to the young dancer in the form of pressure to succeed. Finally, tremendous physical and emotional strain is incurred during the long hours of rigorous training.

It is important that parents and teachers remain cognizant of the amount of stress that dancers are experiencing and work to keep their stress within healthy limits. Without their awareness and involvement, this stress can become excessive and result in burn-out among dancers. Parents and teachers can be sensitive to warning signs of excessive stress that are exhibited by dancers.

These warning signs can be divided into four categories: physical, emotional, cognitive, and performance. Physical symptoms of stress include frequent illness, injury, and physical complaints, and sleeping and eating problems. Emotional signs consist of bad temper, inappropriate emotions, depression, moodiness, and irritability. Cognitive signs encompass excessive negativity and self-criticism, low self-confidence, extreme guilt, unrealistic or distorted evaluations and expectations, and social withdrawal. Performance symptoms include excessive nervousness, poorer dancing during performances than in rehearsal, lack of motivation, interest and enjoyment in dancing, loss of enthusiasm and interest in other areas, a tendency to give up too easily, and a drop in school performance.

Once signs of stress and burn-out have been identified, it is important to actively combat the symptoms and their causes. The philosophical perspective that parents and teachers hold about their dancers’ performances can influence significantly their physical and emotional condition. Four general philosophical rules can reduce the likelihood of stress and burn-out from occurring and can alleviate any that has occurred. First, performance should never be identified as the only acceptable goal for dance. Second, not getting particular roles and failure should not be connected in the minds of dancers. Third, getting the roles and success should not be connected in the minds of dancers. Finally, success should be found more in striving for improvement rather than in the performance itself.

There are also some practical ways to reduce stress and decrease the likelihood of burn-out. Teachers should be careful not to over-train their dancers and training should be fun not a chore. Instructors should emphasize the mastery of skills over the acquisition of roles. Teachers should also be positive and constructive rather than negative and critical. Parents and instructors should be supportive and caring. They should also be mindful of potentially stressful dancers and provide immediate help and encouragement (prevention is better than rehabilitation). Parents and teachers should have open lines of communication and should work together to address problems. Finally, appropriate professional referrals should be made if there is serious concern about the physical or emotional well-being of a dancer.

OVERCOMING SLUMPS IN DANCE

Perhaps the most mysterious and frustrating experience that dancers must face is the occurrence of a slump. Dancers seem to fall into slumps with no apparent cause and come out of them for equally unclear reasons. Also, there has been no consensus on what causes them or how to cure them. Now, though, SlumpBusting provides a systematic program for understanding and alleviating slumps.

What is a Slump?

A slump is any significant drop in a dancer’s expected level of performance. Every individual will have some ups and downs in performance, but, in a slump, performance falls well below normal cycles, typically for unexplained reasons.

Causes

There are four general causes of slumps. Physical difficulties include fatigue from overtraining or performing, lingering illness such as colds, and stubborn little injuries such as muscle pulls and cramps. Small technical changes during performance can also lead to a slump, e.g., changes in the execution or timing of a skill. A variety of psychological factors can also produce decreased performance. Loss of self-confidence, concentration, or motivation can hurt performance. Also, what happens away from the studio or stage, e.g., problems with school or in relationships with family and friends, are potential causes for slumps.

SlumpBusting

Identifying the primary causes of a slump is a crucial step. This process may begin with a careful examination of possible causes, e.g., having a complete physical or reviewing training and performing schedules. Dancers should also look to see if there are any personal, non-dance problems that might be the cause of the slump. If it seems necessary, a counselor might be consulted.

The next step is to take some time off. This can be tough to do with a tight schedule of performances, but slumps tend to perpetuate themselves and thinking long-term is important. Dancers might miss a performance, but then perform better in the long run. Taking time off to get away from the environment that has caused the problem is necessary to develop perspective, i.e., breaking the negative emotional chain. An afternoon might be enough, or a whole week may be needed. Time off gives dancers a chance to stop dwelling on the past and start thinking about the future. Time away also is physically restful and gives dancers time to develop a plan to get out of the slump.

Goals

Once dancers understand the causes of a slump, they need to specify a variety of goals to remedy the causes and alleviate the slump. The return-to-form goal clarifies the ultimate aim of the SlumpBusting program. Specifically, it stipulates the level of performance to which a dancer wishes to return. As with all goals, the return-to-form goal should be specific, measurable, and realistic.

The causal goals address the level of performance associated with a particular cause of a slump. For example, if the slump is caused by a physical problem, the causal goal might involve a measurable level of strength to be worked toward. If the slump is due to technical or psychological issues, then causal goals should be geared toward resolving those problem areas. A specific goal should be established for every cause.

Daily training goals specify how dancers will reach their causal goals. When dealing with a technical problem, for example, dancers must ascertain the most appropriate way to correct the flaw.

Daily performance goals are essential if they are unable to take time off from the performance schedule to resolve a slump. These goals are established to provide dancers with a level of performance to work toward that, although below the desired level, is above the current slump-induced level. Each daily performance goal provides a realistic level toward which to strive, thereby making performance reinforcing rather than discouraging.

Conclusion

Slumps are a significant source of frustration to dancers. By understanding the causes of slumps and designing specific SlumpBusting programs, dancers can overcome these decreased levels of performance and always perform their best.

TEACHERS ARE PEOPLE TOO

Dance teachers are often overworked and underpaid. Considerable attention is paid to difficulties that are experienced by dancers. However, little consideration is given to similar problems that dance teachers must face. Many people simply do not realize that dance teachers are people too. It is important for the mental, emotional, and physical health of teachers that individuals within the dance community appreciate that teachers have doubts, worries, fears, and other problems and that these issues can lead to more serious difficulties that will affect the teachers as individuals and in their involvement with their dancers. Addressing this issue directly is essential in assisting teachers in building a sound foundation for maintaining motivation and enhancing the satisfaction and enjoyment they derive from their work.

Why’s and What’s of Teaching

The first step in building this foundation is to aid dance teachers in understanding their own motivations and reasons for teaching. This phase can be accomplished with a process termed, the why’s and what’s of teaching. This strategy involves, first, asking teachers to identify and list the reasons why they are teaching. Responses to this query should include issues related to personal values, quality of life, and financial expectations. Second, teachers are then asked to indicate what they believe are the benefits and detriments of teaching for them. The teachers’ answers should be comprehensive in their appraisal of all of the positive and negative aspects of teaching. Third, teachers should indicate what they want out of teaching, i.e., what are their goals in their career. Once again, their responses should encompass all aspects of their teaching experience.

Once the why’s and what’s of teaching have been clarified, it is then necessary for the teachers to set personal goals. These goals can be classified into three general categories: attitudes and behavior, skill development, and individual dancer development. Attitude and behavior goals involve setting goals for the attitudes and behaviors that teachers exhibit in their interactions with dancers, other teachers, and parents. Skill development goals comprise standards for the acquisition of the skills that are necessary for improved teaching. Lastly, perhaps the most significant measure of teachers’ ability and success is the development and performance of the individual dancers and the school or company as a whole. As a result, goals involving with individual dancer and school or company performance can be set as a means of maintaining motivation .

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1) WHY DO YOU TEACH? “I like working with kids, not only making them better dancers, but also better people. I don’t want to sit behind a desk. I enjoy being in a dance studio.”

2) WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS AND DETRIMENTS OF TEACHING? “Seeing the kids improve and mature, being able to travel around the world, participating in dance for a living are all benefits. Detriments include low pay, long hours, and burn-out.”

2) WHAT DO YOU WANT OUT OF TEACHING? “I would like to develop some elite dancers and be respected by my peers. I would also like to make enough money to maintain the quality of life I want and have some security in the future.”

3) WHAT PERSONAL GOALS DO YOU HAVE SET FOR YOURSELF? “On a personal level, I would like to get less frustrated with my kids and be more positive rather than critical. I would also like to develop my knowledge in the areas of physical and mental training. I would like to see several of my dancers in a recognized company. Lastly, within the next few years, I would like to teach in a major dance school.” ________________________________________________________

Developing a Coping Repertoire

A significant source of difficulties that negatively influences teachers’ motivation, satisfaction, and performance is common problems that they face on a regular basis. These problems can range from the trivial such as studio and accompanist problems to the serious such as eating disorders among dancers. The ability of teachers to address these issues in a positive, constructive manner will influence significantly their teaching performance and their own sense of self-worth and well-being. As a result of this importance, the development of effective preventive measures and coping skills is essential. A useful way to initiate this process is through group brainstorming with the teaching staff. This method allows teachers to share techniques they already use and to generate and have consensus on the most effective means of dealing with problems.

The first step in developing a coping repertoire is to identify common sources of problems. Within any particular studio setting, there is usually a common set of difficulties that teachers must address regularly. These frequent problems include inter-dancer conflict, negative attitudes, and injuries. A detailed identification of these areas will clarify for the teachers the problems that are most frequent and frustrating and provide the basis for prevention and coping.

The most effective means of dealing with problems involves employing preventive measures. In other words, the best way to deal with problems is not to have to deal with them. Through active management of the school or company environment, teachers can create a setting that prevents many problems from arising. As a result, a significant source of stress for the teachers can eliminated.

Invariably, not all difficulties can be prevented. Consequently, it is necessary for teachers to develop a coping repertoire as a means of addressing these problems in a healthy fashion. There are many ways to deal with obstacles. However, the ideal solution should be one in which all involved parties emerge with good feelings and a sense of closure. As a result, careful consideration should be given to the best means of solving problems. Techniques such as time-out, i.e., getting away from the problem, assertiveness, and honest communication are examples of ways that difficulties can be addressed in a positive manner.

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PROBLEM: Overbearing parents at classes and performances.

PREVENTIVE MEASURE: No parents at classes, parent education classes.

COPING SKILLS: Role-playing of diplomatic, but firm response to parents. Relaxation techniques to control anger.

PROBLEM: Burn-out.

PREVENTIVE MEASURE: Limit and structure work hours, delegate responsibilities.

COPING SKILLS: Time-out, build social support, seek counseling.

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Building Support System

Perhaps the most important way that teachers can maintain their motivation and satisfaction and deal with the stresses associated with teaching is through the development of a broad-based social support system. There are several levels at which support can be built. First, possibly the greatest source of frustration for dance teachers is the lack of financial, logistical, and moral support from the school or company management. The inability to accomplish necessary tasks that are outside of the immediate responsibilities of the teacher is detrimental to teachers on both a psychological and practical level. As a result, considerable effort should be made to open up lines of communication between teachers and administrative staff. This support allows teachers to fulfill their responsibilities unencumbered and to receive the necessary assistance when the need arises.

A second important area of support must come from within the teaching staff itself. A cohesive, mutually-supportive staff will be more efficient and will be able to address a greater variety of issues more effectively. A meaningful issue relative to this concern is in the selection of the staff. Consideration should be given not only to the individual abilities of the teachers, but also to how their strengths and weaknesses complement and support each other. A well-balanced staff does not have to be composed of individuals possessing every necessary teaching skill. Rather, a carefully selected staff will be comprised of teachers who, in aggregate, possess all of the requisite skills necessary to fulfill their responsibilities. A useful method for building and maintaining support within a teaching staff is to schedule regular staff meetings with the express purpose of solving problems, providing an emotional outlet, and developing preventive and coping strategies.

Another significant source of support for dance teachers is from family and friends. Particularly for teachers that are required to tour regularly, time away from home can be lonely and stressful. In order to minimize these difficulties, schools and companies can incorporate a program by which teachers have ready access to support from family and friends.

Finally, the counselor can play an important role in the support system of teachers. It is often the case that teachers are experiencing difficulties that they do not feel comfortable discussing with other members of the staff. In this situation, the counselor is an essential source of support, providing problem-solving, emotional catharsis, and simply someone with whom teachers can speak.

In sum, it must be emphasized that dance teachers are people before they are teachers. As such, if teachers are expected to do the best job they can, they must be considered on a personal level. Moreover, active management by teachers can ensure that they maintain their motivation and derive satisfaction and enjoyment from their work. So when teachers ask themselves why they teach, they can come up with a lot of good reasons.

INTERPERSONAL DANCE TEACHING STYLE

The interpersonal dance teaching style is the foundation upon which all specific teaching skills, whether technical, physical, or mental, are built. Interpersonal teaching style (ITS) is defined as the manner in which dance teachers present themselves to and communicate with their dancers. How they look, how they carry themselves, how they communicate both verbally and nonverbally, have a profound effect upon the dancers with whom they interact. Particularly among young, developing teachers, this notion should be considered and addressed.

The interpersonal teaching style is comprised of several specific components. They include issues related to leadership, authority and discipline, overt and covert communication with dancers, teachers, and others, the effective communication of technical and performance information, organizational skills, and teachers’ response to stress and pressure.

Teachers’ interpersonal style will influence their students in several ways. First, it will affect their overall attitude and perspective toward their training and performing, e.g., whether performance is viewed as enjoyable or stressful. Students’ interactions with their teachers largely determine their perception of dance.

Second, teachers’ ITS will affect their dancers’ motivation to practice and perform. In other words, their ITS will dictate whether dancers perceive their experiences in the studio as positive and healthy, thereby increasing their desire to participate, or as negative and detrimental, thus reducing their motivation to participate.

Third, the teachers’ ITS will affect the dancers’ receptivity to the specific teaching skills that they employ during the course of classes. Quite simply, if dancers do not like or respect their teacher, they are going to be less receptive to the subsequent instruction and it is likely that training will be viewed as a negative experience.

The type of dancers that are to be taught is an important issue that must be considered relative to the suitable ITS. Several dancer factors have to be examined. First, what is the goal of the participation? Clearly, teachers would behave differently if they were working with a junior program who’s primary goal was participation and fun as compared to elite dancers training for professional careers.

A second contributing factor is the personalities of the dancers. For example, a particular teaching style would have different effects on dancers who are motivated vs. unmotivated or sensitive vs. tough. A highly demanding teacher would be effective for tough, unmotivated dancers, but sensitive, motivated dancers would probably respond better to a more supportive teacher. The point that must be emphasized again is that identifying the particular needs, interests, and goals of a group of dancers is essential in determining what ITS will be most effective.

It must also be stressed that, like technical instruction, there is no single best ITS. There are many interpersonal teaching styles that are effective. In fact, for every successful teacher, there is a unique and valuable style. For instance, some are funny and energetic, others are serious and encouraging. However, despite the diverse styles, they share some common characteristics such as the ability to instill self-confidence and motivation, and to make the learning experience fun and satisfying. As a result, it is not so important for teachers to mold themselves into the ITS of a famous, well-respected teacher. Rather, what is important is that teachers know what ITS they want to convey and then work to develop it. In addition, the successful teacher does not have one ITS that is used with all dancers. Rather, different styles will be used to fulfill the needs of each individual dancer.

In order for teachers to develop an effective ITS, it is first necessary to evaluate their present style. It is sometimes the case that teachers are unaware of their own demeanor, i.e., how they behave during classes or at performances. As a result, the development of this awareness will enable teachers to judge the quality and effectiveness of their current ITS. This process can be accomplished in several ways. A technique that is often used in academic education is the video-taping of teaching performances. Applied to dance teaching, an actual class or performance can recorded and then reviewed, enabling teachers to become aware of the particular attitudes and behaviors that they exhibit. Self-monitoring of behavior and feedback from dancers and, more importantly, from other teachers are additional tools that are valuable in the evaluation process.

Once the current ITS is clarified, it is necessary to establish the criteria for the desired ITS. This can be done by specifying all of the desired characteristics that teachers wish to project. These attributes might include being more enthusiastic, speaking more slowly, or using more physical demonstrations of skills.

When both the current and desired ITS are established, they can be compared for congruence. If some disparity exists between the two, then a plan of development can be implemented that employs self-monitoring, practice, and feedback as a means of bridging the gap between the present and desired styles. By following this procedure, teachers can gain a greater understanding of and enhanced control over the manner in which they communicate with their dancers. This process results in a highly effective, individualized interpersonal teaching style that enables teachers to maximize the particular aspects of dance they wish to convey to their dancers.

In addition to developing the overall interpersonal teaching style, it is also useful to identify and nurture specific behaviors within the ITS. In other words, regardless of the ITS they develop, teachers should develop a wide repertoire of behaviors in order to effectively address the different situations which they often face. Teachers who possess a broad behavioral repertoire have the ability to successfully handle more types of dancers, problems, and circumstances.

A step-by-step procedure can be used to facilitate this development process. The first step is to conduct a teaching task analysis as a means of specifying the particular responsibilities of the teachers and the behaviors that are associated with them. Second, an dancer analysis in which the attributes of the dancers are examined and conclusions can be drawn as to the most effective means of dealing with them. Third, teachers can identify their current and desired behavioral repertoire. Finally, a program of behavioral and attitudinal change can be developed to bring the current and desired repertoires into congruence, thereby maximizing the work that teachers do with their dancers.

UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNING PROCESS IN DANCE

A primary responsibility of dance teachers is technical instruction. However, this task does not simply involve demonstrating a particular technical skill, then having the dancers perform it. Rather, instruction is a complex interaction of physical, motor, psychological, and communication skills that occur between the dance teacher and dancers. As a result of this complexity, the education of teachers in the learning process is essential for sound teaching and effective skill acquisition.

The Learning Process

Perhaps the most central question that teachers must ask when studying the issue of effective instruction is, “How do people acquire physical skills?” Without understanding the learning process, it is difficult to determine the most effective means of teaching. Motor learning experts suggest that the learning of physical skills is composed of four steps that must be accomplished in sequence in order to produce rapid, consistent, and lasting learning.

1. Intellectual understanding. This stage emphasizes the importance of dancers having an understanding of the incorrect and correct means of executing a skill. In other words, they must understand what they did wrong and how to correct it. Without this awareness at the intellectual level, transfer to physiomotor learning will be no more than a trial-and-error procedure. It should be noted that two groups of dancers seem able to by-pass this stage: Young children and highly gifted dancers. These individuals rely primarily on imitation to learn.

2. Kinesthetic awareness. In order to acquire new skills or change old ones, it is necessary to develop kinesthetic or muscle awareness. That is, dancers must have a sense of what their bodies are doing and where they are in space. To determine dancers’ muscle awareness, the teacher may use a simple test. Ask them to close their eyes and to assume a ready position in preparation for the execution of a particular skill, e.g., demi plie. Next, ask them to describe their body position. Teachers will find significant error in the responses of most dancers indicating that they do not have precise kinesthetic awareness. It should also be noted that this awareness seems to be related to ability level; the better the dancer, the greater the muscle awareness.

Useful methods for developing kinesthetic awareness include having dancers watch themselves in the mirror or on video and having dancers direct their concentration onto their body during performance of a skill, e.g., focus on arm position while doing a demi plie. This refocusing allows them to gain conscious awareness of what their body is doing and how it is moving.

3. Initial motor learning. The third step in this process is where the actual learning begins and there is the first evidence of technical development. At this point, a simplified environment is essential, in which the teacher has the dancer perform with no distracting variable, e.g., in the studio rather than on stage. Dancers are then able to correctly execute the new skill. However, at this early stage of learning, the ability to maintain proper execution deteriorates with the inclusion of additional variables, e.g., a series of dance movements.

This phase is perhaps the most crucial in the learning process. In examining the acquisition of skills, it is important to understand that motor learning involves teaching the muscles to move reflexively through a specific motion. During learning, this component should be the principal focus.

The following is a common scenario with which teachers are often faced. A teacher has her dancer make a technical change and it results in the dancer performing poorly at first. The dancer tells the teacher that the change obviously does not work because she is performing below her previous level. The dancer then returns to her more reliable but less effective technique.

However, most dancers do not realize that they are performing poorly not because they are executing the skill incorrectly, but rather because the technical change has effected their timing and they are thinking so much about the skill, they are not executing the overall performance well, e.g., thinking about the head and arms and not about the total movement. Furthermore, the only way this process can occur is through repetition of the proper movement. Once the neuromuscular training has taken place, timing with the new skill returns in a short time and dancers can then think more about the artistry of dance.

Another notable concern in this stage is concentration. Dancers’ ability to concentrate on the appropriate cues is essential for effective learning. In order to address this issue, it will be useful to, first, explain what concentration is, and then, apply it to the learning process.

Good concentration involves focusing on things that are necessary to perform. However, it is important to point out the differences between good learning vs. performance concentration. The learning phase requires dancers to focus on different things than in performance. A difficulty that often arises is that during the learning phase, dancers focus too much on the overall performance of the movement rather than on those elements that will enable them to acquire the specific skill.

The primary focus while learning should be the dancers’ own bodies, specifically their kinesthetic awareness and motor control, and the skill to be learned. If the focus is not appropriate, the new skill is forgotten, old habits return, and no learning takes place. So, contrary to popular conception, at the initial stage of learning, performing can be detrimental to learning by interfering with proper concentration.

Teachers can assist their dancers in maintaining the proper concentration. Perhaps the best method to accomplish this task is with the use of cuing. Cuing consists of repeating a word that will remind the dancers to concentrate on the learning relevant aspects of the performance rather than on the performance itself. For example, if a dancer is working on turn out, the teacher can repeat the phrase,”turn out”, continually as the dancer is rehearsing. After the correct skill has been demonstrated consistently with the cuing from the teacher, the dancer may then use self-cuing, first overtly, then covertly, i.e., the dancer says it to herself as she performs, until the skill is executed without cuing. At this point, it may be assumed that the new skill has been learned to a degree where the dancer may advance to the final stage of the learning process.

4. Generalization. The fourth stage involves generalization of the skill to increasingly more complex settings. The generalization process for a dancer working on turn out, for example, might go as follows: working on turn out in dance class, during rehearsal, then in performance on stage, beginning with performance of lesser importance and moving up to performances of increasing importance.

Expectations and Goals

A significant influence on the successful completion of this stage is the expectations and goals that dancers develop when learning new skills. Too often, dancers have unrealistic expectations and set unreachable goals relative to learning. Typically, they learn a new skill and then expect to use it immediately and effectively during performance. The subsequent and predictable failure to achieve these expectations causes anger and frustration. As a result, they may view their learning experience as negative, thereby reducing the likelihood that they will strive to improve in the future. In addition, dancers are inclined to attribute their failure to themselves, which may result in a loss in self- confidence and a decrease in the motivation to learn. It is important for teachers to explain the learning process to their dancers, to inform them of its likely course, and to assist them in developing reasonable expectations and goals. Demonstrating the probable learning curve is of particular value. Most dancers have the misconception that learning occurs in a consistent, linear fashion, i.e., improved performance follows directly from learning. However, learning and performance, in fact, follow a cyclic pattern. In other words, the early stages of learning tend to produce a temporary drop in performance. It is at this point that the muscles are being retrained and are not yet able to respond effectively, resulting in a transient period of poor performance. However, in the later stages of learning, performance returns to and surpasses its original level.

Teachers can facilitate the acquisition of skills by educating their dancers about the learning process, the progression of generalization, and the time that is required for the process to reach completion. As a result, teachers can minimize the likelihood that their dancers will have a negative learning experience and maximize the feelings of satisfaction that are derived from the process of learning and improvement.

MAKE PARENTS YOUR ALLIES

A source of stress and frustration for the dance teacher is often parents. This is disturbing because teachers and parents are the two groups who have the greatest impact on the young dancer. Clearly, if they are at odds, it is the dancer who will suffer. The goal then is to move teachers and parents from an adversarial position to one of cooperation. Teachers can facilitate this process by developing a continuing dialogue with parents.

One of the most common parent-related complaints of dance teachers is that they seem to have some fundamental philosophical differences in the role that dancing should play in the young dancer’s life. For example, some parents might have goals of stardom for their child while the teachers are emphasizing fun and technical development. These differences are important because they will have a significant impact on the attitudes and behaviors of the teachers and the goals set by the dancers. To clarify this issue, it can be helpful for the teachers to invite the parents to a meeting to openly discuss the various views and agree upon the philosophical direction that will be taken.

If parents understand and endorse the approach the dance program is taking, problems will be less likely to arise. If some parents do not agree, they can make the decision to choose a dance program that is more consistent with their views. If their child stays in the program, the parent will at least have a clear idea of the program’s direction, which will reduce later confusion and problems.

Also, it is useful for teachers and parents to deal with more concrete concerns at this meeting. In particular, another preventive measure can be to identify what may be considered appropriate behavior by teachers and parents. A list of parent and teachers do’s and don’ts can be developed). This list should include behavior at the dance studio, rehearsal, and performance. From this meeting, a formalized document composed of philosophical direction and the list of dos and don’ts may then be sent to all parents. To increase adherence, the document may be written in contract form and signed by all teachers and parents.

For example, a common complaint from teachers is that parents will want feedback about their child at inappropriate times, e.g., during a class. Clearly, this is disruptive and distracting for the teachers and dancers. At the same time, parents have a right to ask about how their child is doing. A part of the parent don’t list might include “don’t speak to the teacher during rehearsal”. Similarly, an item on the teacher do list might involve “setting up office hours each week in which parents may stop by or call to get information about their child’s progress or to discuss concerns they may have.”

Another useful technique to ensure proper behavior is to have the parents police their own ranks, so teachers can focus on the things they are paid to do. During the teacher-parent meeting, several parents who regularly wait in the studio and attend rehearsals and performances might be elected to act as “parent police”. Their role would be assist teachers by monitoring parents to make sure they act appropriately. For example, if a high pressure parent yells at a teacher or talks badly about another dancer, the parent-police, who have been endorsed by all of the parents, can take the offending parent aside and tactfully discuss their concerns as they relate to the document discussed above.

In sum, communication and clear guidelines can provide useful information and reduce misunderstanding. An on-going dialogue can then turn teachers and parents from adversaries to allies. And the real winners will be those that teachers and parents are doing all this for: the dancers.

INCORPORATING MENTAL SKILLS INTO DAILY TRAINING

Over the past few years we have offered a variety of information on the mental aspects of dance training and performance in Dance Teacher Now. These articles described many techniques that can be used to develop dancers mentally so they may perform their best. However, it may have been unclear how these methods could be combined into an organized program of mental training. Consequently, this article will look briefly at the major psychological factors that have been addressed and how they can be incorporated into the daily training regimen of dancers.

Any preparation for dancing, whether physical or mental, must start long before the stage performance. The basic mental skills should be an integral part of the dance program. Mental areas to be worked on include self-confidence, anxiety, motivation, and mental imagery. What is nice about the strategies we have written about is that they are simple, can be used during regular training, do not take a lot of time, and are fun. A helpful way to begin this process is for the teacher to take the lead in organizing and implementing the plan described below.

Motivation

The foundation of any training program should involve goal-setting. Research has shown that people are more motivated and work harder when they have clearly defined objectives toward which to work. Dance teachers should spend time with their dancers developing a series of goals for their training.

In addition, training is much more motivating when it is fun, interesting and meaningful. There are few things worse for motivation than routine, monotonous exercises. Variety is stressed here (See DTN, Sept, 1987).

Self-Confidence

Dance teachers should have two goals when teaching new skills. They must teach the technical and physical components for the proper execution of the skill and instill in their dancers the self-confidence that they can perform the skill in any situation.

At a general level, as significant role models, teachers may help the self-confidence of their dancers by exhibiting a positive, enthusiastic attitude during training, rehearsal, and performance. Such an attitude tends to be contagious, causing dancers to adopt and demonstrate similar feelings about themselves.

More direct influence on self-confidence can be exerted by dance teachers with the use of positive reinforcement. Regular encouragement increases the likelihood that dancers will develop positive attitudes and behaviors that will result in successful performances. Teachers must also discourage their dancers from making negative or ambivalent self-statements. Techniques that we discussed in earlier articles include positive thinking and thought-stopping (See DTN, Jan/Feb, 1987).

Anxiety

Teaching relaxation techniques is a valuable tool that dancers can use. Breathing and progressive relaxation can be included in the training program. Also, group discussions on irrational thinking and dealing with the unexpected can sensitize dancers to potential problems in these areas (See DTN, April, 1989).

Mental Imagery

Mental imagery is one of the most powerful techniques for developing good mental skills. Imagery can be included into training in several ways. Ten minutes can be set aside a few days a week for imagery sessions. Beforehand, teachers can prepare a scenario through which to guide their dancers.

Imagery can be incorporated into training by the dancer. After the teacher gives dancers feedback, they can imagine themselves making the correction. In addition, before and after class, dancers can once again mentally rehearse what they are working on (See DTN, Oct, 1987; Nov/Dec, 1987).

Mental Skills and the Daily Training Regimen

The mental skills mentioned above can easily be included in the normal daily preparations of dancers.

1. Arrival at the studio: Upon arrival at the studio and before class begins, students can do their mental warm-up along with their physical warm-up. Self-confidence can be developed by repeating positive self-statements to themselves. Breathing and progressive relaxation can be used to master anxiety. Mental imagery can be employed to rehearse what they will be practicing in the upcoming class and improve concentration on those skills to be worked on.

2. During class: Following feedback from the teacher, students can reinforce the instruction they are given by mentally rehearsing the skill. This strategy can also be used just prior to practicing the skill to generate a positive image and focus concentration. In addition, positive self-statements may be repeated if negative thoughts arise and breathing and relaxation can be used if students become anxious.

3. After class: In order to make mental training as regular as dance training, teachers can organize progressive relaxation and mental imagery sessions for the dancers several times a week.

4. Group discussion: Another value strategy for teachers is to have periodic discussions with dancers about issues that of importance. Topics that might be addressed include getting that first lead role, the frustrations of learning new skills, handling parental pressure, and dealing with injuries. These discussions provide an excellent forum for teachers to offer useful information to the dancers. In addition, they allow dancers to raise issues of concern to them and express thoughts and feelings that they have related to their dance experience.

5. Individual meetings: As discussed in previous articles, responding to the individual needs of each dancer is important to the continued enjoyment, motivation, and growth of the dancer. Consequently, scheduling monthly meeting with each dancer can allow the teacher and the dancer to monitor progress, air concerns, and keep apprised of the dancer’s personal and professional development.

Conclusion

By organizing the mental skills that have been discussed into an systematic program and incorporating them into daily dance training, teachers can be sure that they are creating an atmosphere that will enable their dancers to maximize their ability. More importantly, they can be confident that they are doing what they can to foster positive attitudes and increase enjoyment, satisfaction, and interest that will motivate their dancers to continue participating for many years to come.

NOTHING IS WORTH YOUR HEALTH OR SANITY

Dance, as a vocation or avocation, requires dedication, discipline, and other difficult decisions. Dancers may face choices that can impact their immediate lives and long-term development as performers and people. “Students are left principally to their own devices to figure out what dancing is all about,” states Teri Loren, author of The Dancer’s Companion: The Indispensable Guide to Getting the Most of Dance Classes.

There has been a gradual change in the attitudes of dance instructors to a more holistic approach to teaching and artistic development. Because of the tremendous commitment that is required of dancers, it is important that they have an understanding of why they participate, the benefits and costs of dance, and fully appreciation the ramifications of the decisions they will make during the course of their dance participation. You, as teachers, play a significant role in this process. You can provide your dancers with experience, perspective, and an objective view of the choices they will make and how the decisions will affect their dance and their lives.

By creating a dialogue with your dancers and facilitating group discussions to share their outlooks and experiences about dance, they will be able to make more informed and constructive decisions. “The dance performance educator will use a pedagogical triangle consisting of education through dance, knowledge of ourselves, and preparation for the future,” suggests Luke Kahlich, a former director of dance at Kansas State University.

The impact that you have on this process is especially important because dancers may not have the expertise and maturity to consider the future impact of their current decisions. Also, young dancers (and young people in general) often have an air of invulnerability that causes them to believe that they are immune to harm, thus underestimating the effect that their decisions may have on them later in life.

This process should be ongoing throughout dancers’ careers so that they are provided with continual exposure to new, perspectives, issues, options, and choices that arise in their dance and personal lives. These continuing opportunities for self-examination and feedback from others can assist dancers in actively and beneficially directing themselves toward their goals both within and outside of dance.

In beginning this dialogue, you can help your dancers understand why they dance by asking them what they love about dance. Common responses we have heard include the artistic expression, the discipline, the satisfaction of being highly skilled, and the joy of performing. You can then ask what your dancers dancers dislike about dance. Typical comments we hear include lack of a social life, demands of dance training, managing body weight, and difficulties keeping up with school work. This process helps dancers to articulate and understand why they dance, what they get out of it, and how it might limit them. Our experience in working with young dancers is that, despite the difficult aspects of dance, few would ever choose to leave dance voluntarily. The resonance of their responses demonstrates the power of dance for them and with this information, they can more clearly understand the role of dance in their lives. “If you dance a great deal you’ll wonder why you put up with the physical demands at all. But in the end you’ll find that you love dancing more than you hate the minor discomforts,” echoes Teri Loren.

The Tough Choices

You can help your dancers identify choices they will have to make as they develop, and how those decisions will affect them as dancers and people. There are four primary decision areas of frequent concern in dance. First, dancers must decide the importance of education and its influence on their dance participation. For dancers who aspire to professional careers, there is the temptation to drop out of school to pursue a dance career full time. This decision has short-term benefits because it allows dancers to devote all of their time to mastering their craft. However, the long-term implications are meaningful, particularly considering the fact that most dance careers do not last much past 35 years of age. Without an education, there are few options available to retired dancers.

For other young dancers who simply participate in dance for the intrinsic rewards it provides, you can show them how dance can be a medium by which they can further their education within the arts and use dance to achieve their life goals. You can inform them about college dance programs and have accessible information from various universities describing the types of programs that are available. In addition, for the aspiring dancer, there are college dance programs, often in collaboration with a dance school and company, that are designed to prepare dancers for a career as a performer and, at the same time, provides them with a college education.

Second, dancers must decide about the use of tobacco, alcohol, and drugs. As dancers develop, there can be considerable exposure to these substances including and beyond those found in high schools. Dancers begin to use them for a variety of reasons such as to manage body weight, handle stress, or simply because it is available and their social group uses it. This decision can have some short-lived and largely illusory psychological, social, and physical benefits such as making the dancers feel better, being more accepted by their peer group, and helping to maintain their weight. At the same time, this usage begins to take an immediate toll on dancers psychologically and physically and, with long-term use, can become addictive and life-threatening. Talking about the dangers of substance abuse in an open and honest manner, and having informational materials available, particularly if it is directly related to dance, is a valuable way positively impact the decisions dancers make in this area. “They [weight control drugs] keep me awake, so then I need sleeping pills. Both kinds have turned out to be addictive. Wish someone had warned me,” laments Paul Taylor.

Third, there is considerable social and self-imposed pressure for female dancers to maintain an “ideal” weight and appearance. Such pressure can lead to immediate physical problems such as eating disorders (e.g., anorexia and bulimia) and developmental delays in addition to long-term physical difficulties such as osteoporosis. You can help dancers understand and manage their eating habits in a healthful way and still maintain a dancer’s line. This can be accomplished with education about nutrition and eating disorders, and discussions about their experiences and feelings related to eating and body image. Additionally, there appears to be a movement among some companies to expand the “acceptable” body type for female dancers, for example, the companies of Mark Morris and David Parsons. This more flexible attitude appears to be finding its way down to smaller companies and school

Fourth, dancers must consider the long-term effects of the intense physical demands that they place on their bodies. Injuries that range from minor (e.g., muscle pulls and strains) to major (e.g., torn ligaments and tendons), and which are almost inevitable, can affect dancers immediately and in the long run. Short-term, these injuries can slow dance progress and cause significant discomfort. Additionally, there is often considerable pressure, either self-imposed or from others, that pushes dancers to return from an injury before they are fully healed and physically prepared. Thus, a chain of recurring injuries can be devastating to a dancer’s development. Long-term, these injuries can leave dancers at the conclusion of their careers with varying degrees of disability that can limit their functioning throughout their lives. It is essential that dancers learn to rest, care for, and rehabilitate injuries that they experience.

Making Good Decisions

Making good decisions is a skill that develops with guidance and experience. The most basic thing you can communicate to dancers about making decisions is the distinction between acting on impulse, because it feels good, is socially cool, or it brings some immediate gain, and considering options, thus thoughtfully weighing the short-term benefits and costs with the long-term ramifications and making a good decision based on these deliberations. I have listed below some recommendations that you can provide to your dancers to help them make good decisions for immediate and future benefits.

1. Don’t let others force you into a bad decision.

2. Don’t make a decision based only on short-term benefits.

3. Don’t make a decision you may regret later on.

4. Do give yourself time to make a decision.

5. Do step back and consider the impact of your decision short- and long-term.

6. Do get feedback from people you trust, for example, parents and instructors.

7. Do make a decision that is best for you in the long run.

Required Reading

Regardless of whether your dancers are pursuing a professional career or want to use dance as a vehicle for personal growth or expression, perhaps the most powerful examples of the types of decisions that dancers may have to make in their dance involvement and the impact those decisions can have on their lives are described in two books: Holding on to the Air by Suzanne Farrell and Dancing on my Grave by Gelsey Kirkland. These books, particularly impactful for female dancers, describe in sometimes painful detail the decisions that these two ballet superstars made, and the positive and negative effects those decisions had on them. The titles alone illustrate the choices that these two prima ballerinas made and how they view those decisions and their effects on their careers and lives. Whatever level of dance to which your dancers aspire, the experiences of these two dancers, the decisions they made, and the impact dance had on their lives are meaningful lessons that can be applied to dance or life in general.

First Law of Decision Making

In all of the decisions that dancers will have to make in their dance participation and lives outside of dance, you should impress upon them our First Law of Decision Making. Ultimately, when dancers must make difficult decisions, when they have weighed their options and considered the immediate and future benefits and costs, the final litmus test of the decision can be reduced to one simple rule: Nothing is worth your happiness, health, sanity, or love of your self.