Book Chapters

Ogilvie, B.C., & Taylor, J. (1993). Career termination issues among elite athletes. In R.N. Singer, M. Murphey, & L.K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of research on sport psychology (pp. 761-775). New York: Macmillan. (To read)

Taylor, J., & Wilson, G.S. (2002). Intensity regulation and sport performance. In J. Van Raalte & B. Brewer (Eds.) Exploring sport and exercise psychology (2nd Ed.). (pp. 99-130). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. (To read)

Taylor, J., Ogilvie, B., & Lavallee, D. (2006). Career transition among elite athletes: Is there life after sports? In J. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (5th ed.) (pp. 480-496). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. (To read)

Taylor, J. & Kress, J. (2006). Psychology of cycling. In J. Dosil (Ed.), The sport psychologist's handbook: A guide to sport specific perfomrance enhancement. New York: Wiley. (To read)

PSYCHOLOGY OF CYCLING

Jim Taylor & Jeff Kress

INTRODUCTION

Bicycle racing is an endurance sport in which competitors must cope with tremendous physical and psychological demands in training and competition. O’Conner (1992) cites the Tour de France bicycle race as one of the most grueling tests of human athletic endurance. Typical road races for Olympic-level cyclists range between 50 and 250 kilometers and can take from one (50 km) to six hours or more (250 km) to complete. Weather conditions can vary from hot and humid to wet and rainy to cold and snowy. Cyclists must deal with dehydration, cold, heat, exhaustion, and pain while, often, having to assume specified tactical roles within their team (Ryschon, 1994). Attempts at predicting endurance performance in elite athletes solely on the basis of physiological variables have been unsuccessful (Shepard, 1980). Consequently, it has been suggested that psychological factors play an important role in the achievement of outstanding endurance performance (O’Conner, 1992).

This chapter will address the essential role that the mind plays in cycling. It will begin with an overview of cycling in which the demands and complexity of cycling are discussed. You will then learn about the different types of road races in which cyclists compete, providing perspective on the physical, technical, technological, tactical, and psychological aspects of cycling. The body of the chapter will explore the impact of four psychological factors on cycling performance: intensity, focus, pain, and recovery. We will discuss how these psychological issues influence cyclists, as well as mental training strategies that cyclists can use to develop these areas to maximize their cycling performances.

INTRODUCTION TO CYCLING

Competitive road racing is unique in the realm of sport. Road cycling takes place in an open arena, for example, city streets and country roads, in which, in most cases, nothing separates the competitors from the spectators. “No other sport dares allow such close contact with the participants. Spectators hear riders breathing as they pass; they smell them; and sometimes—by mistake—they touch” (Roll, 2004, p. 14). Perhaps the most famous example of spectator contact with a cyclist occurred when the five-time Tour de France winner, Eddy Merckx, was racing for a record sixth victory in 1975. While leading the race into the famous climbs of the French Alps, he was punched in the kidney by a spectator. The resulting injury plagued him for the remainder of the race and he eventually finished a distant second.

Racecourse conditions can also vary dramatically. Road racing can take place on surfaces ranging from smooth asphalt streets to brutal cobblestones. In addition, unlike many sports in which their contests are either postponed or canceled due to weather, cycling races are contested through all forms of inclement weather. A memorable stage of the Giro d’Italia (one of the three major road-cycling events along with the Tour de France and the Vuelta a’Espana) occurred in 1988 when the American, Andy Hampsten, persevered through heavy sleet and snow over the 2621-meter Gavia Pass to take the race lead and eventual victory. Conditions that day were so brutal that many of the support vehicles were unable to drive over the same roads on which the cyclists raced.

The competitive cycling season is also long by most standards of professional sport, lasting more than nine months. The typical professional road cyclist contests 90-110 races per year. A typical week of training and racing consists of approximately 700-1200 kilometers, during which cyclists will log 25-30 hours a week of riding time. In addition to training and race time, cyclists also spend many hours traveling to training camps and races all over the world. This level of commitment means considerable time away from home and family.

The races themselves are complex and sometimes chaotic events that place additional demands on cyclists. A typical road race is composed of more than 20 teams of up to ten riders each, for a total of between 150-200 competitors. Each team has differing riding styles, goals, and strategies to achieve their goals. In cycling, the best-laid plans can go for naught due to the unpredictable nature of races, including breakaways (when one or more riders try to separate themselves from the peloton or the main pack of riders), crashes, bad weather, poor communication, and equipment malfunctions. The ability of riders to persevere under these conditions and adapt to these capricious and uncontrollable occurrences often determines which cyclists will be successful.

Types of Road Races

Road racing is contested in a variety of formats. It can consist of mass-start single-day events, stage races, or solo races against the clock. Each type of road race requires different physical abilities and places unique psychological demands on the riders.

Single-day Races

Single-day races are those that are completed over the course of one day. Perhaps the most traditional form of single-day race is the point-to-point road race, which typically begins at one location and finishes at another. These events often take place between two cities or towns. Examples of well-known professional single-day events include Fleche-Wallonne, Paris-Roubaix, Ghent-Wevelgem and Het Volk. The courses of single-day races can vary from entirely flat, favoring sprinters, to very mountainous, which benefit climbers.

Circuit racing is another category of single-day racing. These races are contested over courses that begin and end at the same location and consist of multiple laps of which each lap is 25 to 40 kilometers in length. The total distance raced is typically between 200 to 280 kilometers and are raced over roads that are flat to moderately hilly. A third type of road racing is the criterium, which is similar to circuit racing, but the courses are flatter and shorter, usually one to three kilometers per lap with races being 70 to 80 kilometers in length. These races tend to be very fast, with the average speed of a criterium being around 42 kilometers per hour while a road race is closer to 34 kilometers per hour.

The psychological demands of these races require that cyclists have a single-minded focus on the coming day. They can learn the specifics of the course (e.g., terrain and road conditions) and develop tactics appropriate for the race. Cyclists must have an intense and focused effort for a relatively short time. They can also give 100% effort in the race because they don’t need to conserve their energy for another day of racing.

Time Trials

Time trails have been affectionately called, “The Race of Truth” by cycling aficionados. This event is either contested as a point-to-point race, around a circuit, or out and back on the same road. This style of road racing is unique in that the riders are required to race alone start to finish (they start at 30 second to two minute intervals depending upon the race) and must rely on their own fitness and psychological strength, without the aid of teammates or drafting, to the finish in the fastest time possible. Cyclists use specialized equipment, including bicycles, helmets, and clothing that are designed to maximize aerodynamics and reduce wind drag. Time trials can range in length from a few kilometers to 60 kilometers or more. A sub-discipline of the time trial is the team time trial in which teams compete against each other using the same format. This event typically has four to nine teammates working together to maximize efficiency and speed in an attempt to record a time that is faster than the other teams in the race.

Time trials, perhaps more than any of the other disciplines of bicycle racing require the utmost amount of focus from cyclists. Because cyclists are racing solo against the clock, there are no team tactics, no one to pace them, they are entirely self-reliant in his efforts. Cyclists can monitor their efforts in several ways, such as heart rate, speed, cadence, and feelings of physical exertion. With an emphasis on all-out speed, cyclists must be acutely aware of the course (e.g., turns, climbs) and road conditions (e.g., wet, rough), and use this information to navigate the course in the fastest and most direct fashion. Because of the focus on absolute speed, time trials are dangerous and extremely physically demanding. They require that cyclists find the line that lies between the fastest route through the course and disaster. Cyclists must maintain focus every moment, calculating how fast they can go around curves and on descents.

They must also effectively apportion out their energy throughout the race. Because time trials are usually relatively short in distance (e.g., eight to 60 kilometers) and the focus is on speed, cyclists must maintain a high level of intensity and sustain a consistent amount of effort throughout the race. If they go out too fast, they may bonk later in the race. If they don’t go out fast enough, their early splits will be slow and they won’t be able to make up the time late in the race. The winners of time trials are often the cyclists who are able to distribute their energy evenly throughout the race and have nothing left when they cross the finish line.

One method we have found to be successful in getting cyclists to maintain their focus, intensity, and effort throughout the duration of the time trail is to have them go through regimented checks of their physical exertion, pace, and the course that lies ahead. One prominent cyclist likened the process to having his brain as the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer and it constantly makes checks of the system. Without the required focus, intensity, and effort, a time trial can quickly turn into just a long solo ride with no promise of a good placing.

Stage Races

Stage races are multiple-day events that consist of a series of point-to-point, circuit, time-trial, and criterium races. Riders must start and finish each stage to continue to race in subsequent stages. The overall winner of a stage race is the rider with the lowest cumulative time of all of the stages. The most famous stage race is the Tour de France, which consists of 20 stages and approximately 3,250 kilometers in distance.

A variety of competitions are held within the stage race itself for which riders compete. Each day’s race is contested as a single event and gaining a stage win is a source of great prestige and individual, team, and national pride. Awards are also given for the categories of racing that occur within stage races, for example, best climber, best sprinter, best young rider, and most consistent rider. The leaders of each of these categories are awarded specially colored race jerseys, which are worn as symbols of status and honor. Points are awarded to the riders in each of these categories and the rider with the most points at the end of the stage race is named the best rider in that category. The most prestigious jersey in road cycling is the Tour de France’s Maillot Jaune (Yellow Jersey), awarded to the overall winner of the 20-day stage race. Notes the former professional cyclist, Bob Roll, “Wear yellow even one day and you’ll never buy your own drinks in France for the rest of your life” (Roll, 2004, p. 21).

Stage races combine the previously mentioned psychological issues with the need to establish a long-range individual and team tactical plan and awareness of the ongoing physical demands that a stage race places on cyclists. Unlike the single-day events, stage races are not won or lost in a single effort. Cyclists’ ability to adhere to their race plan, even when faced with unexpected challenges, allows them to be successful. Patience and the ability to effectively distribute their energy for the duration of the race, are also essential qualities of great stage cyclists . Because stage races include the other types of cycling events, they require all of the psychological tools necessary in cycling which will be described further in this chapter.

PSYCHOLOGY OF CYCLING

Based on the description of road cycling that we just offered, the physical demands and psychological challenges that riders face may be unique in sports. The physical factors of strength, endurance, and skill, coupled with the unforgiving weather and course conditions, and cycling being a team as well as an individual sport, present cyclists with rare challenges that test every part of their psychological repertoire. Not only must riders have command over their motivation, confidence, intensity, focus, emotions, and pain (Taylor, 2001), but they must maintain their mastery under the most dire physical and environmental conditions with the risk of serious injury or death for extended periods of time.

Though all athletes in every sport must deal with varying degrees of all of the psychological factors described by Taylor (2001), cycling presents particular challenges in a few specific areas. The remainder of this chapter will focus on four psychological areas, intensity, pain, fear, and recovery, which we believe are especially relevant to road cycling. It is worth noting is that these four factors are not exclusively psychological in nature (unlike motivation, confidence, and focus). Each is grounded in physical experience, yet the influence of intensity, pain, fear, and recovery on cyclists is determined by how they identify, interpret, and respond to the physical reactions of the four factors. This process of psychological filtering ultimately determines the impact they have cyclists’ performances.

Intensity

Cycling success involves preserving and apportioning out energy as it is needed during a race. Road racing has ebbs and flows of energy needs that are perhaps like no other sport in the world. During the course of a typical professional road race, which can last five to six hours, there will be extended periods of time during which there is no “racing” taking place—riders are maintaining a comfortable pace in the peloton and saving their energy for difficult parts of the course—and the intensity of the cyclists is low. The riders are simply covering distance on the road prior to a crucial part of the race, which could include a section of cobblestones, a long climb, a breakaway, or a sprint finish. Several minutes prior to a key part of the race the tempo will typically pick up as the cyclists’ position themselves for the upcoming test. The intensity of the riders will rise in preparation for the imminent effort. Their intensity level will be further elevated once they are actively racing and competing with others. If cyclists expend too much energy because of elevated intensity during the slower parts of the race, they will not have enough energy to compete effectively when it matters.

Intensity is a continuum that ranges from sleep (very relaxed) to terror (very anxious) (Sonstroem, 1984, Taylor & Wilson, 2002). Somewhere in between these two extremes is the level of intensity at which cyclists perform their best. One of the confusing aspects of intensity is that there isn’t one ideal level of intensity for all riders or all race distances (Landers & Boutcher, 1993, Weinberg & Gould, 2003, Zaichkowsky & Takenaka, 2001). Some cyclists ride best very relaxed, others moderately intense, and still others very intense. Shorter distance races, as a rule, require more intensity because more energy and explosiveness is needed. Longer races call for lower intensity because intensity is energy that needs to be conserved for strategic points in a race. Cyclists need to learn what level of intensity they ride best at in the different types of races in which they compete (Raglin & Hanin, 1999).

Awareness of Intensity

One of the first methods for educating cyclists about their intensity is to have them develop an awareness of their intensity while on a bike (Weinberg & Gould, 2003). They must be able to recognize the physical and psychological signs of intensity (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2000). In a sport in which the environment, race conditions, and race strategy are continuously changing, cyclists must have an acute sense of self-awareness to be successful. Riders can use several strategies to increase their awareness of their intensity.

Cyclists can reflect back to recent races in which they rode very well and recall their level of intensity (Hanin, 1999). Were they relaxed, energized, or really fired up? Then cyclists can remember the thoughts, emotions, and physical feelings they experienced during these races. Were they positive or negative, happy or angry, relaxed or tense? Second, cyclists can reflect back to recent races in which they performed below expectations. They can recall their level of intensity and remember the thoughts, emotions, and physical feelings they had in those races. A distinct pattern differentiating between good and poor races emerges for most cyclists. When they performed well, they had a particular level of intensity each time. In contrast, when they rode poorly, there was a very different level of intensity, either higher or lower than their ideal. “Young riders who typically pedal too hard too early, who can’t modulate their aggressive instincts, aren’t a good bet to compete” (Roll, 2004, p. 101).

Cyclists can also gain insight into how their intensity affects their riding by focusing on their intensity during training rides and races. While riding they can turn their focus inward and pay attention to their physiology (e.g., breathing, heart rate, muscles), body position on the bike, pedal stroke, thoughts, and emotions. They can then cross-reference this data with how they are performing at the moment and in the race as a whole.

Pre-race Intensity

Having cyclists become aware of their ideal intensity is a crucial component of cycling success. Some cyclists perform best when they are relaxed before a race. Too much pre-race intensity can hurt performance. Negative effects may include the race feeling faster than they are accustomed, their thinking may not be clear, and fatigue may set in more quickly because of the unnecessary expenditure of energy before the race (Landers & Boutcher, 1993, Weinberg & Gould, 2003, Zaichkowsky & Takenaka, 2001).

Conversely, some cyclists perform best when they experience higher intensity immediately prior to a race. Their adrenaline is flowing and they feel what they might describe as excitement, jitters, or “the edge.” Attempting to drastically reduce their pre-race intensity would likely result in a loss of energy, feelings of lethargy, and a decline in motivation. The key for these cyclists is to find the balance between keeping their intensity high enough to make them feel comfortable and confident and not allowing their intensity to rise so high that it is uncomfortable and drains energy and wastes fuel that will be needed in the race.

Cyclists can use a variety of common “psych-down” techniques to reduce their intensity when needed before their race. Deep breathing is one of the most powerful, yet neglected, tools for lowering intensity (Taylor & Wilson, 2002). Anxiety can cause a constricted respiratory system, reflected in short and shallow breaths that can limit needed oxygen into their bodies. As cyclists go through their pre-race preparation, they should be keenly aware of their breathing and consciously take slow, deep breaths on a regular basis (Fenz, 1975; Fried, 1987a, b; Williams & Harris, 2001; Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Another valuable, though little used, technique to reduce intensity is to keep cyclists moving prior to the race (Taylor, 2001). If they sit or stand for too long, not only will their muscles tighten, but their anxiety will also rise. Cyclists should warm up on a stationary trainer, walk around, stretch, or get a pre-race massage. Another underappreciated tool for staying relaxed is to talk to people, whether it is family, friends, teammates, or other competitors. Talking to others takes the focus away from the race and provides support and encouragement that will increase comfort. Other strategies for reducing intensity includes progressive relaxation, maintaining a process focus (Jacobson, 1929; Martens, 1987), using positive self-talk, repeating relaxing keywords, using calming imagery, and listening to soothing music (Taylor & Wilson, 2002).

Pre-race intensity that is too low, caused by cyclists perceiving that the competition is inferior, a lack of enthusiasm for a particular racecourse, or physical or mental burnout, will also hurt race performance (Williams & Harris, 2001). Using “psych-up” techniques can help riders elevate their intensity to a level that will bolster their race efforts. Just as deep breathing can reduce intensity, intense breathing can increase it. If cyclists find their intensity too low pre-race, several hard exhalations can take their bodies and minds to a more intense level. Intense breathing gets more oxygen into their system, increases blood flow and adrenaline, and generally energizes riders. Mentally, intense breathing also creates a more focused attitude and increases feelings of aggressiveness. Increased physical activity, for example, a higher-cadence ride on the stationary trainer, can also elevate heart rate and respiration, and trigger adrenaline (Taylor & Wilson, 2002). Additional techniques for increasing pre-race intensity include high-intensity keywords and self-talk (Raiport 1988, Zaichkowsky & Takenaka, 2001), motivating music (Williams & Harris, 2001; Rider & Achterberg, 1989), motivating music, and mental imagery that rehearse the race goal (Zaichkowsky & Takenaka, 2001).

Race Intensity

Though cyclists may be at their ideal intensity prior to and in the early stages of a race, intensity can change quickly once the race begins. Intensity can go up in response to frustration and anger of getting cut off or missing a breakaway. It can also rise due to greater effort during a long ascent. This increased intensity, if sustained, will create discomfort and burn unnecessary energy. Cyclists’ ability to reduce their intensity when it arises involuntarily or in response to exertion will determine to a large degree whether they have the power and stamina to continue to ride well through the end of the race. Some of the psych-down techniques that cyclists use in their pre-race can also be used during races. Deep breathing, brief progressive relaxation, calming keywords and self-talk, and regaining a process focus can help riders settle down physically and psychologically.

Intensity can decline in reaction to feelings of despair from a flat tire or mechanical failure. It can also drop during periods of races, as we mentioned earlier, where the peloton is not really racing. Intensity that is too low can cause cyclists to be dropped from the peloton, miss a breakaway, or lack the energy for a concerted sprint at the end of a race. Pre-race psych-up techniques can also help riders during a race, for example, intense breathing and high-intensity keywords and self-talk.

Pain

Persistent and intense pain is a hallmark of bicycle racing. Pain is an essential part of cycling training and competition, and at the same time, the greatest obstacle cyclists face as they pursue their goals. Cyclist exact a profound physical and psychological toll when they race for hours at a time at the upper end of their lactate thresholds, for example, prolonged effort while ascending long climbs or repeated attempts at breaking away from the main peloton. Asserts three-time Tour de France winner Greg LeMond, “…the best climbers are those who can stand the most pain…in pro cycling everything hurts, but they just ride through it…” (Avins, 1986, p. 44). The nature of the sport is such that those athletes who can cope the best with the pain will be more successful.

Pain plays an important role in providing cyclists with information about their cycling, including their level of effort and the intensity of their training program. But pain is also a persistent and powerful physical warning to their body. Cycling pain can be the product of several factors: an elevated heart rate which has exceeded a comfortable level, a buildup of lactate, an end product of glycolysis, a depletion of muscle glycogen from the body’s stores; fatigue of the respiratory muscles; and dehydration (Brooks, Fahey, & White, 1996). Athletes who have developed effective coping strategies for tolerating higher levels of pain are expected to perform better than those who have not (Egan, 1987; O’Conner, 1992; Scott & Gijsbers, 1981). Bill Koch, the silver medalist in cross-country skiing at the 1976 Olympics, believed that 90 percent of his success was attributable to his ability to tolerate pain (Iso-Ahola & Hatfield, 1986). Interviews with elite-level cyclists (Kress, 1998) have revealed common methods used for the management of pain while training and racing.

The ability to manage pain nonpharmacologically has improved dramatically (Brena & Chapman, 1983). Developing psychological strategies to deal with pain have become an area of interest since Melzack and Wall (1965) developed the gate-control theory of pain. This model encouraged psychologists to broaden their evaluations to include the assessment of cognitive, affective, psychosocial, and behavioral contributors to the perception of pain. One aspect of treatment involves the use of psychological methods to control pain (Gauron & Bowers, 1986). Cognitive-behavioral strategies that alter how people evaluate their pain have been used to reduce pain and help individuals cope with chronic discomfort (Turk, Meichaenbaum, & Genest, 1984). Cognitive-behavioral techniques have been shown to be effective in reducing pain, for example, surgical pain (Langer, Janis, & Wolfer, 1975); and chronic pain in children (Elliot & Jay, 1987).

To date, research examining pain among athletes has been limited. Pain-tolerance research has focused on comparing athletes and nonathletes performing a variety of pain-inducing activities (Ryan & Kovacic, 1966; Scott & Gijsbers, 1981). The conclusions of this research were that contact athletes had a higher tolerance for pain than did non-contact athletes and highly trained athletes had a much higher tolerance than did non-athletes. A variety of researchers have examined the use of pain-management strategies among marathon runners and found that they used both associative (focus on the pain) and dissociative (distract from the pain) techniques to manage their pain while competing (Morgan, 1978, 1980; Morgan, O’Conner, Sparling, & Pate, 1987; Morgan & Pollock, 1977; Schomer, 1986, 1987; Silva & Appelbaum, 1989). Others have conducted research based on associative and dissociative styles of attention distraction using other activities reporting similar findings as those just mentioned (Morgan et al., 1983; O’Connor, 1992; Russell & Weeks, 1994; Unestahl, 1992; Weinberg, Jackson, & Gould, 1984).

Perspective on Pain

Using pain to cyclists’ advantage starts with gaining a realistic perspective on what pain really is (Taylor, 2002). They need to understand the difference between suffering, pain, and physical discomfort. Cyclists have a strong tendency to use the term “suffering” when they describe the intense physical feelings they experience when training and racing. What cyclists experience in their training and races is not suffering. People with cancer suffer because their pain is severe, long lasting, life threatening, and often uncontrollable. What cyclists feel in training and races is not really even pain. Real pain comes from injuries. This pain is similar to suffering, but injury pain—though sometimes severe—is not life threatening, typically does not last that long, and can be controlled much more easily.

What cyclists really feel in training and races and what they call suffering or pain is discomfort. It hurts and it interferes with their training and competitive efforts, but it is not severe and they have control over it; they can ease the discomfort by slowing down or stopping. For simplicity’s sake, though, we will continue to call what cyclists experience pain knowing what it really is and that perspective is the first step to mastering pain.

Interpreting Pain

The next step to overcoming cycling pain is to understand that pain is not just a physical experience that cyclists have to tolerate in their training and races (Taylor, 2002). Pain also has a major psychological component to it; how they think about it and the emotions they connect to it affect the pain they feel. How riders interpret their pain either propels them to new and higher levels of performance or it hurts their motivation, reduces their confidence, increases their anxiety, and distracts they from their training or competitive focus. If cyclists can interpret their pain in a positive way, their pain will feel less painful (Kress, 1998).

Endurance athletes, such as cyclists, can actually enjoy the pain they experience in training and races. Cyclists can interpret the pain they feel from extreme exertion as rewarding because it affirms their significant efforts. It communicates to them that they are working hard and that their efforts will produce satisfying results. Successful cyclists enjoy the pain because it tells them that they are progressing toward their goals.

The situations in which cyclists find themselves affect their interpretation of pain. If all physical variables, such as heart rate and level of fitness, are kept constant, those competitors who are having a “good day” feel the pain a lot less than those who are having a “bad day.” A former Olympian said, “I don’t think the pain actually changes; your perception of it increases and decreases…Suffering really isn’t suffering when you are at the top of your form. When you are really going for the win and performing the way you ought to and want to, very few people would call that suffering even though the pain may be equal” (Kress, 1998). Cyclists must understand that they have a choice in how they interpret their pain. If they understand that how they interpret their pain affects the pain they feel, then they will come to believe that they have some control over how much pain they experience.

Pain as Enemy

Pain becomes cyclists’ enemy when they start to connect negative perceptions such as, “Pain is bad,” “Pain means I am weak,” and “Pain means I will fail,” with the pain they feel. This attitude toward pain puts them in a defeatist mindset in which the first experience of pain in training or competition will set off a vicious cycle of negative thinking and negative emotions. If, for example, while doing hill repeats on their bike during a training session, they start thinking, “I hate this because it hurts so much. Is this really worth it?” this negative self-talk will increase the pain they feel, lessen their desire to fight through the pain, and limit the benefits they gain from training (Taylor, 2002).

Some fascinating research has emerged recently that has found that the emotions that athletes connect with their pain have a significant impact on how much pain they feel (Gil, Williams, Keefe, & Beckham, 1990; Sullivan, Thorn, Haythornthwaite, Keefe, Martin, Bradley, & Lefebvre, 2001; Weisenberg, 1987). All cyclists have had the experience late in a race where they are hurting. They begin to get frustrated that they won’t achieve their race goal. They get angry at themselves for not training harder. They may even despair of their ability to finish. When they connect these negative emotions with their pain in training or a race, they will feel more pain. Between the pain they feel, their negative self-talk, and the negative emotions, they have little chance of giving their best effort in training or being successful in races (Taylor, 2002).

Pain as Ally

Making pain cyclists’ ally is a deliberate process that takes commitment, effort, and practice. It starts with accepting that pain is a normal and important part of training and competition (Kress, 1998)—“no pain, no gain,” as the saying goes. Staying emotionally detached from training and race pain can also reduce the pain they feel. This can be accomplished by using pain as information during their workouts and races. Pain tells them how hard they are working and whether what they are feeling is due to exertion or injury. With this information, they can adjust their pace, modify their technique, change their body position, or shift their tactics. Making these changes will help them reduce the pain and also maximize their performance (Taylor, 2002).

Cyclists can take active physical steps to reduce their pain. When their body begins to struggle, it tries to protect itself from the pain by tightening up. Their bodies do not realize that this only makes it worse, so they need to tell them to relax. Simple techniques during training and races, such as deep breathing, raising and lowering their shoulders every few miles, swinging their arms, shaking out their hands, and keeping their face relaxed, can make a huge difference in how their body responds to pain. A simple place to start is with the cyclists grip on their handlebars. Distressed cyclists tend to hold onto the handlebars very tightly with an almost “deathlike” grip. If cyclists release their index or “trigger” finger from the bars, their hands relax and this serves as a starting point for relaxation for the rest of the body.

The experience of pain can be lessened by what cyclists say to themselves (Kress, 1998). Positive self-talk, such “I’m getting stronger with every kilometer I complete,” “This is making me tougher,” and “This pain is normal and everyone’s feeling it,” not only reduces their perception of pain, but it has other psychological benefits including increased motivation, greater confidence, better focus, and more positive emotions.

As much as negative emotions increase the perception of pain, positive emotions have the opposite effect. Connecting positive emotions, such as excitement, joy, and fulfillment, with the pain they feel in training and races reduces the pain and makes it more tolerable. Positive emotions create more positive self-talk and have other psychological advantages, such as greater motivation and confidence. Physiologically, positive emotions release endorphins (neurochemicals that act as our internal painkillers) which not only reduce the perception of pain, but actually lessen the physical pain.

Inspiration may be the most useful positive emotion cyclists can experience when training and racing. They can view pain as part of an epic challenge to achieve their goals. Pain tells them that they are working hard and making progress toward their cycling aspirations. To that end, a two-pronged strategy that combines generating positive self-talk and positive emotions is effective. Smiling also creates positive emotions and releases the pain-killing endorphins. The self-talk tells riders that they are building their fitness that they will be able to rely on in races. Finally, perhaps the greatest lesson cyclists can learn is: The physical pain they feel in training and races in no way compares to the emotional pain they will feel if they do not achieve their goals because they did not master the pain (Taylor, 2002).

Fear

Bicycle racing is one of the most beautiful sports in the world. With all of the different uniforms in a race, a bike race is a colorful tapestry of movement. It takes place over some of the most beautiful scenery in the world, including the Swiss, French, and Italian Alps, and through some of the world’s most beautiful cities, including Paris, Madrid, and San Francisco. It is a graceful sport where a line of 200 cyclists spin their legs almost in unison and flow through the streets as one.

However, along with the beauty comes the beast, which is the speed and dangers that every cyclist is faced with. The close proximity of the riders to each other—physical contact is frequent—allows little margin for error and crashes and pile-ups are common. Because the only protection riders wear is a helmet (and head protection is not even mandated at the professional level), injuries, ranging from “road rash” to broken bones, are everyday occurrences. For example, a crash during the first stage of the 2003 Tour de France occurred near the finish, in which two riders, racing in excess of 55 kilometers per hour, fell, setting off a chain reaction of the almost 200 riders in close pursuit. A mass pileup of riders was the result and race favorites Tyler Hamilton, Jimmy Casper, Fabio Baldato, Marc Lotz, Levi Leipheimer, and five-time Tour de France winner Lance Armstrong became just a few of the victims of the crash. While Casper, Baldato, Lotz, Armstrong and several others sustained only minor abrasions, Hamilton sustained a fractured collarbone and Leipheimer a broken coccyx.

Crashes are not always the result of riders contacting each other, but are due to road conditions such as rain, potholes, gravel, or oil on the road. One of the most publicized crashes due to road conditions in recent years also occurred during the 2003 Tour de France. The Spaniard, Joseba Beloki, was in second place during the ninth stage of the race and threatening to take the leaders jersey from Armstrong. Both were descending a narrow, fast, and twisting road on a hot day. The intense heat was melting the tar in the road and, as Beloki rounded a corner just ahead of Armstrong, his rear wheel slipped on the soft tart and he flipped violently to the ground. The result of his crash was a broken right femur, wrist, collarbone, and elbow, and severe skin abrasions.

In addition to the frequent opportunities for injury, the physical harm is minor compared to the deaths of cyclists that can occur at any time. In recent years, the professional cyclists, Andrei Kivilev and Fabio Casartelli, have lost their lives in crashes. Crashes, whether minor or horrific, are a part of bicycle racing and, as any professional will express, they are simply a part of life in the sport.

Fear of Physical Harm or Death

Cyclists train predominantly on public roads that can be of uncertain quality and filled with automobile traffic. Every time cyclists take to the road for a training ride or race, they put themselves in harm’s way. Every cyclist knows or has heard about someone who either crashed or was hit by a car and sustained a serious injury or who died from a cycling accident. What makes this fear so difficult is that cyclists do not always have control over the danger and it often arises unexpectedly, for example, a pothole in the road or a car backing out of a driveway. Additionally, cars and trucks are not always accommodating to bicycles and some drivers are downright hostile.

Despite these dangers, there has been considerable resistance among the professional cycling communities to wear helmets. In 1991, the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), the sport’s governing body, attempted to enforce mandatory helmet use in sanctioned race. The professional riders threatened a strike, after which the UCI backed down. Contributing to the resistance to wearing helmets is a culture of machismo that is entrenched in the European cycling community. It is not uncommon on European roads to see amateur racers and recreational cyclists not wearing helmets.

This fear has taken on greater prominence in the last decade in the world of professional cycling. Italian Tour de France rider, Fabio Casartelli, died from injuries sustained from a crash during a stage of the 1995 Tour de France. In 2003, the Kazakh rider, Andrei Kivilev crashed during the Paris-Nice stage race while not wearing a helmet and died the next day from a brain hemorrhage. That incident prompted the UCI, to make helmets mandatory in all races. Under the new rules, riders are allowed to use their own discretion in the final five kilometers of races with summit finishes in Europe, but must otherwise wear helmets or risk being fined. The rules vary slightly between countries but more often than not, a helmet must be worn at all times during a bike race. Perhaps the most stringent rules are in the United States. For insurance purposes, the United States Cycling Federation has imposed the even more far-reaching rule of requiring all cyclists who are on a bicycle, whether racing or warming, up to wear a helmet. Some states in the United States make helmets compulsory for any cyclist (whether a racer or not) under the age of 18.

Fear of Overuse Injury

Cycling places significant demands on riders’ bodies and these demands increase as the race distances get longer and frequency, duration, and intensity of training builds. It is rare for cyclists not to sustain an injury due to overuse, improper technique, or inadequate recovery. The occurrence of injuries, particularly when they are serious, for example, meniscal damage, or recurrent, such as a nagging hamstring pull from hill repeats, can cause riders to fear continuing their training efforts and discourage them from giving their best effort. These fears can also reduce cyclists’ motivation to train and limit the intensity they put into their training.

Fear of Failure

In addition to fears of bodily injury, psychological fears can also interfere with cyclists enjoying their sport and achieving their goals. Most common among these fears is the fear of failure that can arise when riders become overly invested in their cycling efforts. Fear of failure is commonly thought of as a belief that failure will result in some type of bad consequence, for example, disappointing others, losing respect, feeling shame and embarrassment, and devaluing oneself (Martin & Marsh, 2003). What makes fear of failure so palatable is that people connect their results with whether they will be loved and valued by themselves or others (Conroy, Poczwardowski, & Henschen, 2001). Most people are motivated to succeed and to gain affirmation from themselves and praise from others, but those who fear failure are most often driven to avoid failure and the criticism and negative impressions that often come with it. Their self-esteem is based on their ability to avoid failure and gain self-love by achieving success. Fear of failure is a potent and unhealthy influence on people and has been associated with many psychological difficulties including low self-esteem, decreased motivation, physical complaints, eating disorders, drug abuse, anxiety, and depression (Conroy, 2001).

Because of the level of commitment that is required for success in cycling, cyclists are particularly vulnerable to fear of failure. The considerable time and energy that cyclists invest in their efforts, and the physical and psychological demands that take their toll, can cause riders to feel the need to justify their investment with success and lead them to believe that failure would render their efforts meaningless. Putting so much on the line whenever they train and race can cause cyclists to put pressure on themselves to succeed and to fear failure if they do not perform up their expectations.

Psychological Impact of Fear

Fear can be a powerful psychological obstacle to achieving cyclists’ goals. Regardless of the source of the fear, it can create a cascade of deficits in psychological areas that are essential for cycling success. Fear reduces riders’ motivation to train and race because doing so is unpleasant. Fear also hurts confidence because, inherent in any fear, is the belief that some form of harm—whether physical or mental—will come from their efforts. This loss of motivation and confidence will cause cyclists to become cautious and tentative, and prevent them from fully committing themselves to their efforts. Fear also cripples their ability to focus. Because the emotional and physical experience of fear is so strong, it is very difficult for cyclists to focus on things that will help their performance. Fear also prevents cyclists from gaining enjoyment from their participation.

Physical Impact of Fear

Fear expresses itself most profoundly in the physical symptoms they feel, including anxiety, muscle tension, shallow breathing, and loss of coordination. These physical sensations individually and collectively cause cyclists to feel tremendous discomfort. Cyclists often use the term, “pedaling in squares,” to describe their feelings when they are not physically feeling comfortable on their bike. Fear also creates substantial obstacles to achieving their goals. The physical experience of fear burns unnecessary energy, interferes with effective movement, and reduces cardiovascular efficiency, all of which keep cyclists from performing their best.

Mastering Fear

Fear is an essential human emotion that protects people when their physical well-being is threatened. (Cannon, 1932) Unfortunately, fear can also arise in situations where it is neither required nor helpful. People often think of courage as the absence of fear, true courage is being able to perform in the face of fear. Cyclists’ goal, when they experience fear, is not to banish it thoroughly, but rather to master the fear and not let it interfere with the pursuit to their goals.

Fears come in all shapes and sizes. Some fears are rational, in other words, there is something that is worthy of fear, for example, fear of crashing during a high-speed descent on their bike. Other fears are entirely irrational, such as worry that a bicycle frame or wheel will buckle on a rough road (it can happen, but it is exceedingly unlikely). Some fears have to do with physical injury or death, for example, being hit by a car. Other fears have to do with race performance, such as starting too fast and bonking or having to drop out. Still other fears are related to psychological injury, for example, failing to achieve a race goal will make them a failure in their own view or in the view of others.

However realistic or unlikely their fears are, they are as real as cyclists believe them to be and these fears will keep them from performing their best. Fears also won’t just go away. Instead, they tend to continue because they become so persistent that they become ingrained into cyclists’ thinking and emotions every time they are faced with the fear-provoking situation. To stop the fears, cyclists must address them, deal with them, and put the fears behind them. Only free of fears will cyclists be able to push themselves to their limits and race their strongest and fastest.

Understand their fear. The first step for cyclists to master their fear is to understand what their fear is. Is the cause of their fear obvious, such as riding on a road with a narrow shoulder with considerable traffic? Or is the source of their fear less clear, for example, feeling fear before the start of the race that they attribute to a tough course, but is actually caused by worry about failing to achieve their goals?

Cyclists need to identify the precise cause of the fear so that they can take proactive steps to overcome it.

As part of understanding their fear, cyclists should become familiar with what it is they are afraid of. In what situation does it arise? What thoughts are associated with the fear? How does the fear make their body feel? What helps them lessen their fear? Having a clear understanding of their fear enables riders to directly address its cause and, as a result, relieve it as quickly as possible.

Gain perspective on their fear. If cyclists are experiencing fear in some cycling situation, the chances are they are not alone. The fears we just discussed are likely to be felt by many cyclists around them. This should tell them that the fear they are feeling is normal. We have found widespread agreement on the fears we describe in this section. Experiencing the fear does not make cyclists stupid, weird, or weak. It just makes them human. Recognizing that their fear is normal will help riders keep it in perspective and prevent them from having the fear consume them. Part of gaining perspective on fear involves cyclists seeing that the fear does not have to cripple them and that they have the power to master it. Talking to others about their fear can help them normalize their fear and give them insights into how others deal with it.

Mastering their fear. Rational fears are best resolved by finding a solution to the cause of the fear. By gaining relevant information, experience, and skills, cyclists can alleviate the source of the fear. Or by changing the situation that causes the fear, they can remove the source of the fear and prevent the fear from arising. For example, a fear of a mass sprint finish is common among cyclists because of the close quarters and frantic pace. This fear can be relieved in several ways. Cyclists can avoid the jostling that causes their fear by being at the front of the peloton and begin their sprint first. They can also stay on the outside of the peloton, though they will still have to deal with the barriers that may be present that separate the road from the spectators. Finally, riders can choose not to participate in the sprint and finish back in the pack. They can also practice pack sprint finishes by simulating them during training rides with a group of cyclists and working on staying relaxed and focused, and maintaining their sprinting form. They can also reframe the fear as anticipated excitement about the finish of the race.

High-speed descending presents another type of fear some cyclists will encounter and it can be relieved in several ways as well. Cyclists can go down a mountain pass at speeds of up to 100 kilometers per hour on tires that are no more than 23 millimeters in width. Lose gravel, oily roads, tight turns, other cyclists, and vehicular traffic are a few of the obstacles that must be safely negotiated at such high speeds. Cyclists can take bike-handling classes that will improve their cycling skills and give them more confidence in descending. They can also gain more experience and comfort by doing a great deal of descending on their training rides. An alternative way to relieve their fear is to simply slow down on the descents, realizing that races are rarely won or lost on the downhills. This last option involves weighing the value of going fast downhill versus their comfort and safety and choosing to follow the adage, “Discretion is the better part of valor.”

Mastering irrational fears involves a different approach. Because irrational fears have no objective solutions, cyclists can’t solve the fear nor can they readily change the situation that causes it. Instead, they have to counter the irrational beliefs that cause the fear, in other words, be rational with their irrationality. Returning to the bike buckling on a rough road example, cyclists can remind themselves that bikes are tested to withstand such abuse. They can do an Internet search to find any evidence of bikes breaking in half during rides on uneven roads. They can also draw on their own experiences and that of their friends who ride extensively and determine whether anyone has ever had or seen a bike buckle. Even with this rational debunking, irrational fears may linger. When the fear arises, cyclists can accept it as normal, decide to put it out of their mind, and focus on things that will help them have a good ride.

Regardless of whether cyclists’ fears are rational or irrational, they can use several practical techniques to help them overcome the fears. Positive thinking that focuses on their strengths and their ability to overcome their fears will gird them against the force of those fears. Fears can be overwhelming because they dominate their thinking and cause riders to focus on the things that make the fear worse. They can resist this tendency by focusing on things that will help them deal with the fear, for example, they can focus on using good technique on the bike during high-speed descents. If they are focused on the process of riding and what they need to do to ride well, then they will not be focused on the fear.

Because fears are manifested physically, with muscle tension, increased heart rate, and shallow breathing, cyclists can use the psych-down techniques we discussed earlier, including deep breathing and relaxing their body. Creating a physical state that counters the feelings of fear will cause lessen how much cyclists feel the fear. This strategy has the added benefit of distracting cyclists from the fear, helping them focus on something that actually reduces their fear, and increases their sense of control, the loss of which is a big part of the fear they feel. In cases where the fear is irrational or can cause little real harm, a great way to get over their fear is to just accept it and do the thing they fear. We have found that the most fear-provoking part of cycling is just thinking about it. Once cyclists get into the experience they fear, it is rarely as bad they as they think. Finally, riders should not expect their fear to disappear overnight. If they are patient and work on overcoming their fear, as they gain experience, confidence, and comfort, they’ll often find that the fear fades away.

Recovery and Overtraining

Making rest and recovery, a part of cyclists’ training program is an indispensable contributor to race preparation and success (Hawley & Schoene, 2003). Taking the time to recover is also, for many riders, a psychological commitment that is difficult to make because many believe that if they are resting, they are not getting in better condition and may actually be losing fitness. “One of the biggest challenges for young athletes is realizing how much rest and recovery they need. Their natural tendency is to push themselves extremely hard in an attempt to match the training of their older, more experienced teammates (Carmichael, 2001, p. 153).

Building recovery into cyclists’ training programs serves several essential purposes (Hawley & Schoene, 2003). Contrary to what many cyclists believe fitness gains are not made when they are physically training. Their training efforts actually tear down their bodies. It is during periods of recovery that their physical system repairs the damage and gets stronger and more efficient. Rest days should be comprised of extra sleep, rejuvenating activities such as massage or hot baths, and they should be focused on rehydrating and refueling. Recovery also has important psychological benefits. Rest periods give cyclists a break from the mental and emotional demands that training places on them. Rest gives riders time to reinvigorate the motivation, intensity, focus, and excitement that was depleted in training and racing. Rest also helps cyclists step back briefly from their training and allows them to maintain perspective on how training fits into their lives.

Scheduled recovery periods enable cyclists to take a mini-vacation from the intensity and monotony of training. These breaks allow them to replenish themselves physically and recharge their psychological and emotional batteries. Recovery should not be optional parts of riders’ training program, but rather they are absolutely necessary for them to maximize their training and achieve their cycling goals.

Post-Race Recovery

Cyclists’ allowing themselves to recover adequately following a race is another essential part of a quality-training program. Their willingness to recover fully from a race will affect how readily they are able to return to their season-long training programs and direct their focus and energy into preparation for their next race. Yet post-race recovery can be a source of trepidation for cyclists, raising fears that they will lose their fitness and hinder their preparations for their next race.

Post-race recovery is also necessary psychologically. Cyclists put a great deal of mental and emotional energy into their training and race preparations. Just like with physical effort, they need time to recover from the psychological wear and tear. Additionally, following the excitement of training and the race, some degree of post-race letdown is common in which cyclists may feel some sadness, a loss of motivation, and a lack of direction. This reaction is most pronounced when the race is very important and unusually demanding.

How long cyclists should take to recover following a race depends on a variety of factors. The longer the race, the more time they should take off. Criteriums and flat one-day events may only require a few days to recover, while stage races, which can last from two days to three weeks might require a much longer recovery time. The cyclists’ level of fitness also affects the length of their recovery. If riders are in very good condition and their bodies are accustomed to the demands of racing, then a shorter recovery can be expected. However, if they are not in top condition or they are new to cycling, they should allow more time to recover. The effort cyclists expend in the race also influences the amount of recovery needed. It is possible to complete a race, particularly shorter races, at a pace that places few demands on cyclists’ bodies, meaning that little damage is done and only a short recovery is required. If, however, cyclists competed aggressively, for example, forced the pace, attacked the climbs, or attempted breakaways, they can expect considerable physical damage and an extended recovery will be needed.

Recovery does not mean that cyclists should lie on their couch for an extended period. Exercise physiologists recommend that, after anywhere from two to five days of complete rest, active rest can not only facilitate the recovery, but also begin to prepare them for their return to training. Active rest involves doing light and noninvasive forms of exercise, for example, easy spinning on an indoor trainer. Active rest allows riders to keep their muscles active while placing few real demands on them.

Overtraining

We have found that, as a rule, cyclists are a highly motivated group. Rarely do they come to us because they are not training enough. More often, they are struggling because they are training too much (Keast & Morton, 2002). Overtraining is so common among cyclists because the sport requires so much time, effort, and physical exertion. Combine this training load with high motivation and you have a breeding ground for overtraining (Froehlich, 1993). Research has found that 20-25 percent of endurance athletes suffer from overtraining (Taylor & Cusimano, 2003).

Overtraining can be caused by several factors. A poorly planned training program that involves too much volume or intensity with too high frequency can cause the body to break down and lead to overtraining (Foster & Lehmann, 1999). Declines in endurance, strength, and flexibility are common indicators of overtraining. Research has shown that overtraining is most often the result of a lack of adequate recovery from training volume and intensity (Taylor & Cusimano, 2003). High volume and intensity are not inherently unhealthy, but become so when cyclists do not provide sufficient time for the body to repair and build on the physical damage that is incurred (Hawley & Schoene, 2003).

Symptoms of Overtraining

The experience of overtraining emerges subtly at first and then blossoms into a full-blown threat to cyclists’ training and competitive pursuits. Their goal is to recognize the early signs of overtraining and respond to them appropriately before overtraining sets in and seriously interferes with their cycling efforts (Johnson, 2000). Overtraining presents a number of physical and psychological indicators of which riders can take note (Froehlich, 1993). Physical symptoms related to overtraining include low energy, prolonged muscle fatigue and soreness, difficulty maintaining training intensity, high heart rate, and slow recovery from previous workouts. More general physical symptoms consist of lethargy, persistent tiredness, lingering illness or injury due to a breakdown in their immune system (Fry, Morton, & Keast, 1992a), and difficulty sleeping (Hawley & Schoene, 2003). Psychological warning signs related to overtraining include a loss of motivation to train and race, decline in confidence, lack of direction, difficulty focusing, and reduced pain tolerance. General psychological indicators are depression, irritability, negative thinking, and loss of interest in other aspects of their lives (Druckman & Bjork, 1991; Silva, 1990).

Contributors to Overtraining

Underlying the excessive training and insufficient recovery that leads to overtraining, a number of practical, physical, and psychological factors contribute to its emergence (Froehlich, 1993; Halson & Jones, 2002). The substance and often times monotonous structure of cyclists’ training programs and race schedules can make them vulnerable to overtraining. Elite cyclists compete in anywhere from 90 to 110 races a year and can train up to 1,200 kilometers per week with most of their training intensity occurring at 65-70 percent of maximum heart rate (Halson & Jones, 2002). A training program that schedules too many high-volume or high-intensity workouts each week will place physical demands on riders that can lead to overtraining. For example, more than two high-intensity workouts per week is usually discouraged for all but the highest-level cyclist. A training program that does not provide adequate recovery also sets the stage for overtraining. Without sufficient rest after daily workouts, weekly schedules, and high-volume/high-intensity training periods, cyclists’ bodies will not have enough time to heal and recover (Hawley & Schoene, 2003). A competitive schedule that has too many races without sufficient time to recover can also result in overtraining.

Physical factors can also contribute to overtraining. Minor illness and lingering injuries, both of which are also symptoms of overtraining, can exacerbate cyclists’ vulnerability to overtraining by adding to the already significant demands they place on their bodies in training. Because professional cyclists burn between 6000 to 10,000 calories a day, poor nutrition, before, during, and after training and races, can cause riders to lack the nutrients necessary to effectively sustain the workload of their training and competitive schedule. Without proper fueling in all phases of training, cyclists will be unable to sustain themselves and overtraining will be the likely result. Inadequate sleep is another physical contributor to overtraining. Because sleep is essential for the body to repair and recharge itself, too few hours or poor quality of sleep can prevent riders from getting the recovery time they need to counter the demands of their training programs. Life stress unrelated to cycling can contribute to overtraining (Budgett, 1994). Stress that cyclists experience at home and at work can place an undue burden above and beyond the demands that come from their training (Kentta & Hassmen, 1998).

Overtraining can also be aggravated by psychological and emotional issues that drive them to train too hard or prevent them from getting adequate rest. An overinvestment in cycling, in which riders’ self-identities are predominantly defined by cycling and in which they base their self-esteem on how they perform, can lead them to train excessively. The need for validation of their self-worth by meeting increasingly higher expectations in their training efforts and race results can cause cyclists to ignore reason from coaches and training partners and signals from their own bodies that they are breaking down under the strain. Specific psychological areas that affect this investment include perfectionism, insecurity, fear of failure, and self-criticism. Additionally, qualities that are admired—dare we say worshipped—in cycling, such as dedication, hard work, discipline, focus, intensity, and pain tolerance, when taken to the extreme, can impel cyclists to overtrain.

Recovery presents its own unique set of mental and emotional issues that contribute to overtraining and that can prevent cyclists from getting the rest they need. If riders train with others, they may feel pressure to keep up with them even when such a pace is harmful. This pressure is particularly compelling during group rides in which everyone is highly motivated to stay with the group for esteem and social-acceptance reasons. In these situations, it is easy for riders to raise their level of exertion and rationalize it as being good for them. Though short periods of this intense effort will do little harm, continued exertion will take its toll and lead to overtraining.

If riders are at all serious about their cycling efforts, they are probably always looking for new ways to improve their fitness. Many cyclists are seduced by the classic mentality that more is better, for example, if a 50-kilometer ride will improve their fitness, then they will gain even more fitness with an 80-kilometer ride. However, a key lesson in cycling is that more is not always better and there are diminishing returns as riders increase their volume and intensity. The more-is-better attitude can lead cyclists to overtraining.

Many cyclists simply do not recognize the warning signs of overtraining. As we just described, overtraining has a clear set of physical and psychological symptoms (Hawley & Schoene, 2003).

Unfortunately, these signs are often subtle or less noticeable individually. Cyclists may be so focused on their training that they do not notice them or they rationalize them as temporary states that they will not feel the next morning. Only after the many symptoms have accumulated and overtraining has entrenched itself might cyclists take notice and realize that they are overtrained. Another common reaction is for cyclists to recognize them, but be unwilling to respond to them. Riders might figure that they can just train through the symptoms or they are loath to respond because to do so would be an admission of weakness.

Preventing Overtraining

The best way to deal with overtraining is to prevent it from occurring (Budgett, 1990; Henschen, 2001). Cyclists can take a number of practical, physical, and psychological steps to ensure that they strike a balance between training hard enough to achieve their cycling goals and allowing themselves to recover sufficiently so that they can continue their progress toward their training and competitive goals.

Listening to their bodies lies at the heart of preventing overtraining and is at once the most obvious and least followed lesson cyclists need to learn to keep from becoming overtrained. Cyclists’ bodies communicate with them constantly about how it is responding to training, with heart rate, respiration, fatigue, pain, illness, and injury. These messages are particularly loud when riders are breaking down due to the volume and intensity of their training or a lack of recovery. Cyclists must recognize these warning signs and act responsibly and in their long-term interest by adjusting their training in a way that will alleviate these early symptoms of overtraining.

Prevention of overtraining starts with an understanding of cycling training, the demands it can place on riders, and how that knowledge can be translated into a quality-training program (Kuipers & Keizer, 1988). Buying into the notion that cyclists should train smarter, not harder, is the foundation for a sound training program. Effective training involves a periodized program of varying degrees of frequency, volume, and intensity in training accompanied by appropriate amounts of rest and recovery that will help them to progressively achieve their cycling goals (Carmichael, 2001; Fry, Morton, & Keast, 1992b: Hawley & Schoene, 2003). A quality-training program also includes specific training strategies that are fun, motivating, and fresh to help cyclists avoid the monotony and routine that can set in during a long season of training.

Riders must have confidence in and commitment to their training program. One of the biggest causes of overtraining is when cyclists lose faith in their programs and decide to increase the volume and intensity. If riders believe that their programs will give them the results they want, they are more likely to stick with the plan, particularly when they feel a pull to increase their efforts due to slow progress or seeing others improve faster than they do. Cyclists also need to have patience with their programs. Patience is often difficult in our microwave, fast food, instant-coffee culture in which we live. Like everything of value in life, riders will achieve their cycling goals by being patient and allowing them the time needed to see the results they want.

Cyclists can take several physical steps to prevent overtraining. They can reduce the risk of overtraining by ensuring that they fuel adequately for the demands they are placing on themselves. Riders should be on healthy and balanced diets that provide them with the proper nutrients and sufficient calories to satisfy their training load. Pre-, during, and post-workout nutrition, that includes both solid food and hydration, can also protect riders from overtraining by ensuring that their bodies are well fueled for the burden they place them under (Hawley & Schoene, 2003).

Getting enough sleep is also important for preventing overtraining. The more and harder cyclists train, the more time their bodies need to recover and repair itself. Shortchanging their bodies on this essential time of rest increases the chances of overtraining dramatically. Ensuring that riders get plenty of sleep at night and take naps during the day when needed is some of the best preventive measures they can take.

Interestingly, one of the most common causes of overtraining has nothing to do with cyclists’ training programs. Unless you are a pro rider whose life is devoted exclusively to the sport, cyclists probably, have a career, family, and other commitments that place considerable demands on their time and energy. This “real world” can cause life stress that can wear riders’ bodies down without even adding cycling to the equation. Cyclists should monitor and respond to life stressors so that their non-cycling stress does not take its toll and interfere with their training and race efforts (Froehlich, 1993).

Psychological and emotional factors are more subtle, yet no less influential, contributors to overtraining. These mental issues are often what drive cyclists to train too often and too intensely, and do not allow them adequate time to recover. As we mentioned earlier, psychological concerns, such as overinvestment in cycling, perfectionism, insecurity, life imbalance, social pressure, and unrealistic expectations, can cause riders to make poor decisions in their training that can lead to overtraining. Stepping back from, gaining perspective on, and exploring these areas can ensure that cyclists are not driven to overtrain by these unhealthy influences and that their attitude and emotions make a healthy contribution to their cycling participation.

SPECIAL ISSUES IN CYCLING

In addition to the general performance issues that we have discussed, cycling also presents special concerns that have psychological implications. These issues relate to the roles and dynamics that occur within teams and the allure of performance-enhancing drugs whose use is widespread in cycling and a source of concern and embarrassment in the sport.

Team Roles

Cycling is predominantly a team sport in which each team member has a clearly defined role that contributes to the team’s goals. In every race, at least one team leader is designated to win the race. The team leader role may change depending on the type of race or the point in the season. For example, during the 2003 professional racing season, the United States Postal Service team (USPS) designated George Hincapie as one of its leaders when the team was competing in the spring single-day “classics” and his teammates, including ostensible team leader, Lance Armstrong, supported his efforts. The leader role then shifted to Armstrong for the Tour de France, his specialty. In the fall of 2003, Roberto Heras, Armstrong’s “lieutenant” during the Tour de France, assumed the team leader role on his way to victory in the Vuelta a Espana.

Other members of the team are assigned specific roles as “domestiques,” whose job it is to help the team leader achieve the team goal. Their work may include riding at the front to shelter the leader from wind, chasing down breakaways, getting food and water for the leader and other team members, controlling the pace of the peloton and, and giving up their bicycle to the leader if a flat tire or mechanical problem arises.

Teams face psychological and interpersonal challenges in filling the necessary roles and balancing individual aspirations with team goals. Particularly for stage races and consistent success throughout the race season, successful teams have a balance of riders who can fulfill a variety of roles and compliment and support each other. The most successful teams have members who willingly embrace their roles and offer every team member the opportunity to feel rewarded for their efforts. The domestiques are the most challenged in their roles because they do a disproportionate amount of work supporting their team leader, but receive far less financial reward and attention for their efforts. In some races, such as the one-day events, these riders may not even cross the finish line because their extreme efforts early in the race prevent them from continuing to the end.

Domestiques do, however, have their moments in the sun. For example, at the 2004 Tour de France, the USPS domestique, Floyd Landis, led his team leader, Armstrong, up two major climbs on one stage. On the final descent, Armstrong offered Landis an opportunity to win the stage, but for tactical reasons, he was not able to and Armstrong ended up taking the stage. After the race, Armstrong told the media that Landis was the star of the day. In addition, for each of his six Tour de France victories, Armstrong has given his winnings to his teammates. Domestiques who prove themselves worthy of a more significant team role often move to other teams in need of a team leader, for example, the American Tyler Hamilton and the Spaniard, Roberto Heras, both moved to new teams and became their team leaders a year after being “super domestiques” for Armstrong in the Tour de France.

Teams have other roles that are fulfilled depending on the type of race. Mountainous races are the milieu of the climbers. These cyclists possess immense strength-to-weight ratios, have very high thresholds for pain, and are able to sustain a brutal pace up ascents reaching 15 degrees of inclination. Climbers are usually most successful in stage races because larger gaps of time can be gained in the mountains than on flat stages. The Frenchman, Richard Virenque, is believed to be the best pure climber in the world today.

Flat races often spotlight sprinters. They ride in the main peloton for the entire race conserving their energy and, in the final few kilometers, their teammates work together to position them near the front of the accelerating peloton allowing them to sprint the last 200 meters for the victory. The Italian, Mario Cipollini, has been considered the world’s best sprinter in recent years, along with the German, Erik Zabel, and the Australian, Robbie McEwen.

The sprinters are a special breed of competitor. They have the ability to unleash a powerful, perfectly timed sprint after several hundred kilometers of racing. Sprinting at the end of the race is similar to playing an entire chess game in the last few minutes of a race. Sprinters and their teams must make decisions that will allow them to get to the front of the peloton using the least amount of energy, be aware of the positions of the other sprinters who are their biggest threats, negotiate around opposing riders, and then make changes in strategy based on the dynamic situation that is unfolding around them. Sprinters must find their way through a mass of tightly compacted riders in the peloton while traveling at speeds in excess of 50 kilometers an hour and once near the front of the peloton, begin an all-out sprint reaching speeds of over 70 kilometers an hour or more. Negotiating through the riders, they will often bump each other or be required to swerve and alter their course on a moment’s notice, all the while calculating the precise moment when they should launch the sprint to the finish so that their front wheel will be the first to cross the line.

Sprinters are the most fearless and calculating cyclists who put themselves in the most dangerous situations faced in the sport. There have been some horrific crashes in mass-sprint finishes throughout the history of cycling. The crash that occurred during the first stage of the 2003 Tour de France alluded to earlier in this chapter is one such incident. Cyclists are exhausted during the final sprint to the finish and occasionally will make mistakes in judgment in their quest to gain the victory. A gap between two riders or a rider and the side barrier might suddenly close as a rider moves over resulting in a crash. At those speeds and the closeness of the competitors, it doesn’t take much for a chain reaction to occur with many cyclists crashing in the process. Because races that end in sprints are routinely determined by inches, sprinter’s ability to overcome their fear and to take the necessary risks will often determine who wins the race.

Drugs

Like many endurance sports, cycling has suffered from scandals related to the use of illegal, performance-enhancing drugs. Due to the extreme physical demands of cycling, the rewards for those who achieve success, and their broad acceptance in the cycling community, illegal drug use appears to be more the rule than the exception. Over the last decade, the UCI, attempting to clean up the sport, has instituted a rigorous drug-testing program that has resulted in positive tests, suspensions, and legal proceedings against some of the most prominent professional cyclists in the world. In 1999, the 1998 Tour de France winner, Marco Pantani, was leading the Giro d’Italia with two stages remaining, when a mandatory post-stage blood test revealed the marker indicative of the illegal performance-enhancing drug, EPO (erythropoietin). He was given, what was at the time, the UCI-mandated 14-day suspension from racing which effectively ended his pursuit of the Giro title (Wilcockson, 2004). Shortly after, the Frenchman, Richard Virenque, a now seven-time winner of the Tour de France’s “best climber” polka-dotted jersey, was implicated in a drug scandal with his team and was later suspended for two years. In 2004, two current Professional World Champions, the Englishman, David Millar (Individual Time Trial), and the Belgian, Filip Meirhaeghe (Cross-Country Mountain Biking), as well as former Professional World Champion, the Swiss, Oscar Camenzind (Road Race, 1998), tested positive for the EPO.

Even more disturbing are the deaths attributed to performance-enhancing drug use in recent years. During a six-month period beginning in the middle of 2003, six European cyclists died from “heart failure” which experts suspect was the result of illegal drug use. In February 2004, Marco Pantani, at age 34, died of a heart attack that was believed to have been caused by a drug overdose.

Cyclists feel significant pressure to use illegal drugs to boost their performances. It is frustrating for cyclists competing at the highest level, whose lives are committed to the sport, to watch competitors beat them because of the unfair advantage they gain by using performance-enhancing drugs. Because of significant amount of money that is invested in cycling teams and the strong national pride that is engendered, particularly in Europe, cyclists may also feel pressure from their teams, sponsors, the media, and fans. In 1998, the entire Festina team, one of the oldest and most respected professional teams in Europe, was expelled from the Tour de France after police discovered stocks of prohibited substances. The scandal effectively prompted the creation of the World Anti-doping Agency (WADA). In 2004, the Cofidis professional racing team, another leading European team, was involved in a sweeping drug investigation that eventually lead to the arrest of several members of its staff as well as some of the cyclists. The UCI and WADA hope to reduce or eliminate the use of performance-enhancing drugs in professional cycling through a formal system of education, testing, and sanctions.

While drug use among professional cyclists gets the attention, competitive cyclists of all levels of ability can be seduced by the benefits of performance-enhancing drugs. Anyone who wants to perform their best and achieve success at the level at which they are competing may be drawn to illegal drug use. While resources for obtaining these drugs may be more limited, amateurs still have access to them. Sport psychologists can play a role in preventing their use by educating cyclists with whom they work about the dangers physically, psychological, and within the legal system. Sport psychologists can also teach cyclists mental-training techniques that cyclists can use in place of performance-enhancing drugs to improve their performance.

CONCLUSION

Competitive cycling is a highly demanding sport that involves long hours, extreme physical exertion, considerable pain, risk of injury or worse, a complex interplay of individual and team goals, and great unpredictability. However, arguably, cycling does not bring anything so psychologically unique that it is that much different from many other sports, particularly other endurance sports. Perhaps what makes cycling unique from other endurance sports, such as running and swimming, is its high-risk nature. This chapter has presented issues we have found to be most distinctive to cycling and with which cyclists are most frequently faced in training and races. In addition to our exploration of the four psychological areas that we deemed most relevant—intensity, pain, fear, and recovery—we have offered a variety of practical strategies that have been successful for cyclists with whom we have worked. These tools are valuable to all levels of cyclists and, in fact, to all types of cycling, not just road cycling (e.g., mountain bike racing and track racing). An obstacle for encouraging the use of psychological information and techniques with cyclists is the dearth of research that specifically examines the relationship of psychology to cycling. Because of the shortage of cycling-specific research, we had to garner scientific support for our views by generalizing the results from investigations that explored the psychology of other sports. With the worldwide popularity of cycling as both a participation and spectator sport, we hope that this chapter will encourage those interested in cycling to explore the psychological contributors to the sport in a more rigorous manner.

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